---   The Fishroom Library Archives ---

General Articles on Fishkeeping, with an Emphasis on Killifish (1996-2000)

An archived collection of articles, tips, and information about tropical fishkeeping in general, and killi-keeping in particular, from past issues of the G.C.K.A. Newsletter.  To read an article, please click on the title (in blue).

All material is copyright © G.C.K.A. or the authors, unless otherwise noted. Reproduction is permitted for non-commercial purposes only (i.e., club bulletins). We do request that you provide source credit, and send us a copy of the publication in which the article appears. Please forward to G.C.K.A., c/o Recktenwalt, 4337 Ridgepath Drive, Dayton, OH 45424.

The Abbreviations - what are those three letter codes, anyway?
Acclimatizing Your Fish - What's the Best Way? A few techniques.
A Case for Dirty Water - sometimes less water changes are better.
A Few Views on Killies and Ponds.
Alternate Aquaria - aquarists aren't limited simply to glass, acrylic, or plastic containers.
Among the Problems - Velvet. Some ideas on how to handle this scourge of killikeepers.
Another Viewpoint on Natural Setups
Another Water Source - Dehumidifiers?
A Primer on Peat Moss - types of peat moss and their uses in aquaria.
A Rose is a Rose .. or Must We Use Those Latin Names? - a clarification of nomenclature.
Back to Basics - The Beginning Killikeeper.
Beginner? Advanced? Expert Aquarist? Where Do You Fall?
Burnout! - how to avoid that "overwhelmed" feeling.
Carbonate Hardness - another factor to consider in your water supply.
Cleaning Aquaria - for those times you want to get things really clean.
Cleaning Old Tanks - a few tips for those really dirty old aquaria.
Collecting in Florida - what to plan for, what to expect, what you might collect.
Collecting in Florida - the Fish - some of the fish you might find.
Collection Codes - A Primer - an overview of those strange letter/number suffixes to names.
Color and Intensity in Killifish ... a discussion - some of the factors that affect color.
Conditioning Water
Crossbreeding Experiments with Epiplatys sexfasciatus - abstract.
Ecology ... of Orinoco basin annual killifish - abstract.
Feeding Habits Studied - the interaction of four fish species studied.
A few good starter fish - some recommendations from those who have been there.
A Few Tips on Raising Fry - observations by several experienced aquarium keepers.
A Fish Out of Water ... - rivulins and their "amphibious" benavior.
A Genetic Study on Gold AUS - report on scientific study of inheritance in Aphyosemion australe.
The Good, the Bad, and The Ugly - a slightly different take on the theme.
Good Water? Good Question - what is your local water like?
Harmful Water
How Many Are Too Many? - what is your comfort level?
Hybrids - Intriguing, but Undesirable - ok for scientific study, but not for general distribution.
Identification in the Field - some notes from Barry Cooper
If They Can Jump ... They Will! - why do fish jump?
Judging Killifish - what a judge looks for in show fish.
Just for Fun ... - what the biggest, smallest, etc. killifish?
Just How Long Do They Live? - Killifish are short lived; or are they?
Keepin' Killies - A Primer - some basics about keeping killifish.
Keeping Track ... - keeping track of what species/eggs/fish you have.
Keeping Track of pH - a few ways to monitor your water quality.
Killies and Other Companions
Lighting for Killifish - what's the best light for viewing them?
Losing New Fish? A Few Pointers - a few tips for reducing those stress-related losses.
Mad Dash to Nowhere - fright syndrome and a few tips on preventing it.
Make Your Own Filters - thanks to Jack Heller.
Malaysian (Livebearing) Snails
Moving Fry - One Technique
The Nature Conservancy Buys a Mexican Oasis
Nomenclature and Killifish - why those names are important.
Overrun by Snails? try a natural solution
Panic Attacks - A Few Strategies - triggers and prevention techniques.
Back to Basics - Planning the Fishroom - some things to consider.
Pond Maintenance for Spring - a suggested checklist.
Say It! Understand It! - an overview of that Latin/Greek and what some of it means.
Shipping Fish - An Overview
Shipping Killies - a few basic rules for successful shipment of killifish.
Shipping Your Fish - some suggestions for successful shipments.
Some Good Starter Killies - a few suggestions for that first killifish.
Some Observations on Orinoco Basin Habitat
Snails and Eggs ... Good or Bad?
Snails ... Snails ... Snails - a brief overview of the types of snails common in aquaria.
Soft Water/Hard Water - discussion of water parameters for killifish.
Something's Fishy ... - another look at aquatic-aquired granuloma.
Species? Subspecies? or Population? How do we tell the difference?
"Sports" in Killikeeping
Tank Additives - Oak Leaves - another aid to conditioning water.
Tips from the Fishroom ... A few more suggestions from killikeepers.
To Filter ... or Not to Filter - that is the question.
Usefulness of the Slime Coat - what it is, and what it does for your fish.
Vacation Care for Fry - Revisited - another method.
Vacation Care - What to do When You Won't Be There To Do It - you may not have to feed them.
A Variation on Fry Boxes - one breeder's trick for keeping fry.
Warning Signs ... - where do you fall?
Water Borne Infections - it can happen to you.
Water Changes - Basic Fishkeeping.
Water Changes - Revisited - why they're important.
Water Conductivity - another view of water.
Water Hardness - A Comparison - a look at the dH, gH, fH, and US scales of hardness.
Water Values and Water Tests - an overview.
What Can't You Do Without? - essential items that we don't think about.
Back to Basics - What Filter Do I Need?
What Is A Fishroom? - definitions, and basic information.

More About Names:  The Abbreviations

        In a previous article we discussed scientific names, those tongue twisting Latin/Greek constructions that are used to identify all described living things. However, no mention was made of the three letter abbreviations, such as AUS, GAR, etc., that occasionally show up in reference to various killifish.
        Very simply, the three letter abbreviations are a technical shorthand for the identification of killifish, which facilitate accurate communication without having to spell out entire species names.
        The concept, originally developed by Jorgen Sheel and first published in his Rivulins of the Old World (1975), covered only the old world killifishes. Since then a number of additional species have been identified, and the classification of some species has been changed.
        The following list is undoubtedly incomplete and prone to error (many of the Roloffias, for example have been recently reclassified), but it still should provide at least a handy beginning reference for the aquarist.
     A. - Aphyosemion
     Aplo. - Aplochielus
     C.  - Cynolegias
     E. - Epiplatys
     F. - Fundulopanchax
     N. - Nothobranchius
     Riv. - Rivulus
     R. - Roloffia

   Code   /   Species Names
    AHL - A. ahli
    AMI - A. amieti
    ANN - E. annulatus
    ARN - A. arnoldi
    AUS - A. australe
    BAR - E. barmoiensis
    BAT - A. batesii
    BER - R. bertholdi
    BIF - E. bifasciatus
    BIV - A. bivittatum
    BLO - Aplo. blockii
    BUA - A. bualanum
    CAL - A. calliurum
    CAM - A. cameronense
    CHA - E. chaperi
    CHE - E. chevalieri
    CHR - A. christyi
    CIN - A. cinnamomeum
    DAG - E. dageti
    DAY - Aplo. dayi   
    DOM - Aplo. panchax dorsomarginatus
    DUB - Aphyoplatys duboisi
    ELE - A. elegans
    ESE - E. esekanus
    ESI - A. exiguum
    FAS - E. fasciolatus
    FER - A. ferranti
    FIL - A. filamentosum
    FLA - A. flavipinnis
    FUL - A. fulgens
    GAM - Fundulosoma gambiense
    GAR - F. gardneri
    GEO - A. georgiae
    GER - R. geryi
    GRA - E. grahami
    GUE - N. guentheri
    GUI - R. guineensis
    GUL - A. gulare
    HOM - Pachypanchax homalonotus
    LAB - A. labarrei
    LAM - E. lamottei
    LIB - R. liberiensis
    LIN - Aplo. lineatus
    LON - E. longiventralis
    LOU - A. louessense
    MAE - R. maeseni
    MIL - N. microlepis
    MON - E. dageti monroviae
    MUF - E. multifasciatus
    NIC - E. nigricans
    OCC - R. occidentalis
    OGO - A. ogoense
    ORT - N. orthonotus
    PAN - A. panchax
    PET - R. petersii
    PLA - P. playfairi
    RAC - N. rachovii
    ROL - R. roloffi
    SEX - E. sexfasciatus
    SIN - E. singa
    SIO - A. schioetzi
    SJO - A. sjoestedti
    SPL - A. splendidum
    STR - A. striatum
    TAP - N. taeniopygus
    THI - Fundulosoma thierryi
    TOD - R. occidentalis toddi
    WAL - A. walkeri
    WER - A. werneri
    WHI - C. whitei
    XIP - Riv. xiphidius

List of Possibly Valid Names, or Synonyms
    ACU - E. acuticaudatus (SPI)
    AND - Aplo. andamanicus
    ANS - E. ansorgei
    BAU - E. baudoni
    BEA - A. beauforti
    BOU - E. boulengeri (MUF)
    BRI - N. brieni
    CAB - R. calabaricus (LIB)
    CAS - A. castaneum (SCH)
    COE - A. coeruleum (SJO)
    COG - A. cognatum
    DEC - A. decorsei
    DEF - E. grahami decemfasciatus (SPI)
    DOR - E. dorsalis (FAS)
    ELB - A. elberti (BUA)
    FAL - A. fallax
    GUS - A. gustavi (BEA)
    HOL - A. bivittatum hollyi (BIV)
    INF - E. infrafasciatus (SEX)
    JAC - A. jacobi (EXI)
    JAU - A. jaundense (EXI)
    KIY - Fundulosoma kiyawense
    LEO - E. sexfasciatus leonensis (FAS)
    LOB - A. loboanum (EXI)
    LOE - A. loennbergii (BIV)
    LOL - A. loloense (EXI)
    LUJ - A. lujae
    MAC - E. macrostigma
    MAG - A. margaretae
    MAR - E. marnoi (SPI)
    MAT - E. matlocki (FAS)
    MAY - N. mayeri
    MEI - A. meinkeni
    MEL - R. melanteron
    MEP - N. melanospilus
    MIC - A. microstomum (CAM)
    MUC - A. multicolor (BIV)
    NDE - E. ndelensis (BIF)
    NEU - N. neumanni
    NIG - A. nigerianum (GAR)
    NIM - E. nigromarginatus
    NUC - Pachypanchax nuchimaculatus (HOM)
    OBS - A. obscurum
    OGO - A. ogoensis
    OLB - E. chaperi olbrechtsi
    ORN - E. ornatus
    PAL - N. palmquisti
    PAP - A. pappenheimi (BIV)
    PAR - Aplo. parvus (BLO)
    PAT - N. patrizzi
    POL - A. polychromum (AUS)
    RIG - A. riggenbachi (BIV)
    RUF - A. rubrifascium (BUA)
    RUM - Aplo. rubrostigmus (LIN)
    RUR - N. rubroreticulatus
    RUS - A. rubrostictum (BIV)
    SAN - E. sangmelinensis
    SCH - A. schoutedeni
    SEN - E. senegalensis (SPI)
    SEY - N. seychellensis
    SIA - Aplo. panchax siamensis
    SPM - E. spillmanni (SHE)
    SPP - A. splendopleure (BIV)
    SPU - A. spurrelli (WAL)
    SRE - A. schreineri(BEA)
    STE - E. steindachneri (BIF)
    TAE - E. taeniatus (BIF)
    TES - A. tessmanni (BUA)
    TRO - N. troemneri (ORT)
    UNS - A. unistrigatum (BIV)
    VEX - A. vexillifer (CAL)
    ZIM - A. zimmeri
-- GCKA Newsletter, November 1997                    Return to top of page

Acclimatizing Your Fish – What's the Best Way?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Sometimes the difference between health and success with our new killifish, or illness and swift death, lies with the way we acclimatize them to the particular conditions in our own fishrooms.
        No matter how carefully your new killifish have been packed and handled, they will have suffered a certain amount of stress on their trip to your tanks. This makes them more susceptible than usual to and pathogens or parasites they may encounter, whether from their home tanks or your own. Anything we can do to ease the transition into their new quarters is of benefit.
        How do other killikeepers manage this?
        Recently, Doug Karpa Wilson took an informal poll on the Killietalk mailing list, asking how people acclimated their new fish. Among the answers were the following.
        "We use silicone tubing with plastic valve to drip acclimate," replied R. Scott Page. "If we are receiving fish through the mail we add 1 ml Amquel per bag immediately upon receipt, otherwise we just drip acclimate. The contents of the bag are poured into a 1 gal. plastic pitcher, which is set into a 5 gal. bucket. The tubing is set to drip into the pitcher – slowly. If we neglect checking up on the process the pitcher overflows into the bucket. Jumpers also end up in the bucket this way. Usually the fish is acclimated in between 1-2 hours."
        "I use a pin-hole drip of tank water from a styrofoam cup into the container with the fish until the volume about equals three times the original volume," says Tom Payne. "A soda bottle with the top cut off to hold the styrofoam cup works well. This then gets floated in the tank 10 minutes before release. I learned the technique from a member of our club (G.C.K.A.) who raised beautiful fish with no air pumps and no filters, just water changes."
        First of all, check all incoming fish and tend to the ones that need help immediately, advises Monty Lehman. After conducting any emergency procedures, adjust the temperature, either by leaving them alone for a while, or by floating the bags in water of the appropriate temperature.
        "The best method of water acclimation that I have found," Monty continues, "is by drip tubes (adding the fish to an empty container and adding small amounts of your water over about a two hour period). Adjust the drip rate so you can count a drop every 1 to 2 seconds, and continue until you have doubled or tripled the amount of water they came in. After this you can increase the flow rate until you have a gallon or so of water. Then just set them up in the container you intend to keep them in."
        "I'd add another step," Joseph Ponnath says. Instead of moving the fish immediately from the gallon container into their final quarters, "I watch them for the next two weeks. Makes it much easier to see any problems" or provide treatment if required. Joe, who has extremely hard water with a high pH, also does daily water changes using water from the tank they will go into, to make certain their water stays the same. He then nets the fish out and places them in their new homes. "I try to have no original shipping water go into my tanks," Joe says. "I firmly believe that water chemistry difference will lead to all kinds of problems," so he takes steps to minimize any shocks.

• A small, clean cup of water added every 15 minutes or so is a good alternate method.
• A small amount of water conditioner added to the drip container often helps.
• Mark the containers right away with the ID of the fish. If you don't you'll be sorry sometime quite soon.
• Keep all containers covered, or use deep containers to prevent jumping.

        The bottom line, of course, is to adjust the fish slowly and carefully from the water they have been living in, to the water they will be living in. This reduces the potential for physiological damage, either from trauma or from the stress and shock of being handled and shipped, and of having to adjust to new water conditions. At the same time, a slow, careful acclimation that dilutes the water the new fish arrived in should also reduce the potential that an outside pathogen will be introduced into your clean tanks.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 2000                     Return to top of page      

A Case for Dirty Water
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        We've all heard the advice that regular partial water changes are the best way to keep our fish healthy, happy, and (hopefully) breeding. We're encouraged by the "experts" to change tank water regularly and often.
        But are there, perhaps, times when this advice is not wholly correct? when a certain amount of "benign neglect" may be beneficial?
        There is at least anecdotal evidence that for some species regular water changes may not be the best of advice.
        "I have [had] continued positive experience with dirty tanks and better egg recovery," says Charles Harrison. "Water changes every five to seven days, without disturbing the tank setting or removing much of the debris or disturbing the mops, has often resulted in more eggs. My cleanest, most pristine mops and tanks don't produce nearly the number of eggs and fry as do the more mature tanks, independent of size."
        "I have kept dwarf cichlids and know ... that when the water is changed every two weeks (30% change) this triggers ... the fish to spawn towards the end of this period," comments Nancy Graham.
        "I, too, have found 'dirty' tank conditions a boon to breeding fish and raising fry," observes Joe Gardner, who uses exclusively sponge filters in all his tanks. "I look at good mulm in the same fashion I regard good garden compost. It takes a while to cultivate but is worth the work and wait. I have found that with various killies, livebearers, cichlids and gobies, the fry hide in the mulm and find food [there]. It is important to continue to make water changes, but not to disturb the mulm very much."
        "It seems I get more eggs (consistently) out of tanks that are in need of cleaning than those that were just cleaned," observes Will Wasserman. "Does the polluted water cause an acceleration of egg production?"
        "Bob Earls up in Creemore, Ontario, used to start out with three or four trios [of SJO] in a 15 [gallon tank] and feed heavily," reports Richard Sexton. "The dirtier the water got, the more eggs he got." When the fish finally got sick, he'd change the water. "The fish would be fine, but they'd never lay another fertile egg. Not just the number of eggs, but the fertility was a function of filth. The dirtier the water, the more fertile the eggs."
        Ron Harlan speculated that there might be a chemical or hormonal trigger [in dirty water] that relates to fertility and egg production. From an evolutionary standpoint, this might make sense, since fish that laid many fertile eggs in an evaporating (i.e., more polluted) pond might be evolutionarily more successful simply by producing more fry and providing a greater chance for survival of the species.
        "One theory is that as the water gets dirtier, the pH drops, making it more acidic, which could also be the trigger the fish need to spawn," says John De Luca. "I have found that about 30% of the species I keep won't lay well until the water is dirty. I first discovered this by accident when ... I neglected my routine maintenance of my adult tanks ... and noticed that some fish that I classed as difficult had mops loaded with eggs. I have many friends who keep livebearers and they tell me that some of these fish prefer dirty water to produce fry. Another friend who successfully breeds discus .. has about an inch of mulm on the bottom of his breeding tanks."
        So perhaps a little debris in a functioning biological cycle is not a bad thing. A German writer some time ago applauded "clean dirt," a layer of mulm which he left on the tank bottom while changing water.
        "Don't clean the tanks so often," suggests Gunnar Asblom. "Dirty water as we think is maybe not bad for the fish. Use a filter and plants such as java moss and you don't have to clean the tanks, just change the water sometimes, but only 10-20% each time."
        Remember, too, that courting and spawning are variable behaviors, with any number of possible factors triggering them. It's been well observed that some newly arrived fish go into a spawning frenzy, while others may take a month or more to become adjusted before courting and laying eggs. Sometimes, too, fish simply "take a vacation," ceasing to spawn for no particular reason and then resuming again "when they feel like it." -

- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 1999 and March 2002                    Return to top of page

A Few Views on Killies and Ponds
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        With winter here, perhaps it’s time to think about the outdoor aspect of our killifish hobby. Outdoors? Yes, outdoors.
        Killikeepers and killifish need not be confined to the temperature controlled confines of the fishroom. During the warm weather months, many species can spend their summers "on holiday" in patio ponds or tubs outside. Most killikeepers who had tried giving their killies a "summer vacation" report favorably on the practice.
        One immediate benefit is the easy availability of a variety of a live foods. Where there is water there will be bugs–mosquitoes and various insect larvae. This leads to better vigor and growth rates. This improved diet, coupled with the exposure to natural sunlight, results in better color.
        "I have kept killies out in ponds with varying degrees of success," says Klaus Schoening. "The Bluefin Killie (Lucania goodiae) and Fundulus notatus did great and I had bunches of both at the end of the summer."
        Cathy Carney puts her Aplocheilus lineatus in ponds 3x5x3 ft., with waterlilies, water lettuce, tropical hornwort, "the requisite frogs, tadpoles, snakes, and anything else that enjoys water." She regularly finds eggs on the roots of the water lettuce, and sees fry appearing in the pond. "I don’t do supplemental feeding once the fish are out–I have less than a dozen adults" in the pond, and no filtration. The only water change she does is the complete drainout at the end of summer. "It’s the only way I can catch the fish."
        She does find that she loses a lot of fry to predation by dragonfly nymphs, etc. And "this year … I have a major pond snail infestation. The only way I am getting fry at all is to move the water lettuce (with eggs) to another pond." Her water is well water, pH 7.4 to 7.8, 300 ppm GH. "The killies seem to thrive… [which] shows how adaptable they are."
        Amer Faour reports having put Cynolebias nigripinnis outside in spring of 1995. The fish survived throughout a very hot summer (up to 35°C [95°F]), and a very cold winter, with ice at the surface of the water. The fish were beautiful, big, active, and healthy. "The food is the best you can find, the fishes have a lot of space."
        Joe Richey reports that at one time he had a number of fiberglass square tubs, about 50-60 gallons. A couple of pairs of Fundulus notatus were placed in them and left alone. "With lots of cover they grew quickly and cleaned out the local insects."
        "I put two pair of Jordanella floridae (American Flagfish) in my 30 gallon patio pond this spring," reports Donna Recktenwalt. "As of mid September I had harvested a total of more than 50 fry from the pond, and from the tub where I had put the excess Tropical hornwort. I did have to drain the pond to recover the adults, however."
        Bob Meyer reports that he summers his killies outside, in a pond 9 feet in diameter and 1 foot deep. Due to predation, he has had very few killies successfully breed and mature, but the fry that he puts out in April "are magnificent in October. I find the best way to harvest them is to go out late at night with a flashlight. Most float near the surface asleep and are easy to net out."

-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 2000                    Return to top of page

        Velvet is the common name given to a disease caused by any of several different species of dinoflagellates belonging to the genus Oodinium. These flagellated protozoans, present in all aquarium water, attach themselves to a host and feed in the cells of the skin, fins, and gills. They live on the host for 24-48 hours, then drop to the floor of the aquarium. Multiple cell divisions occur, producing daughter cells that swim to find a host. If the daughter cells don’t find a host they die within 24 hours.
        Methods to prevent velvet include the standard practices of avoiding stress, making regular water changes, monitoring temperature and diet, and avoiding overcrowding.
        "Velvet usually attacks weaker fish or those shocked by sudden changes in conditions," points out Wright Huntley. Healthy fish may carry a few of the parasites and never show symptoms until stressed. Even in ill fish, the disease may not be obvious: some minor clamped fins, a slight "hovering" behavior, perhaps some dusty or cloudy coloration on the skin. In extremely parasitized fish, the disease is much more obvious: an overall cast of gray or dusty gold and an obvious appearance of ill health.
        Some research indicates that salt in the water will help prevent the daughter cells of Oodinium from becoming free swimming; 1/2-1 tsp. salt per gallon is considered adequate to kill the protozoans after they have detached from the host. This level of salt also reduces the duration of the adult stage on the fish. The salt concentration may be boosted up to 3 tsp. gallon, adding 1 tsp. per gallon per day over three days.
        Brian Watters says that the most effective cure for velvet he has found is "Velvet Guard" by Jungle Products. This is especially effective if you can diagnose the velvet at an early stage. Once there is a heavy infestation it is more difficult to eradicate. "As soon as I see signs of velvet, I immediately medicate the tank and stop feeding the fish for a couple of days. I then change 60-70% of the water and medicate again." He then begins to feed lightly and repeats water changes and medication as required.
        The use of formaldehyde has also proven useful, although the pH will drop suddenly. The fish can adapt quickly to this, but the protozoans and hydra cannot. Acriflavin and Malachite green will also work.
        "If the water is clean, fresh, and well aerated," says Wright, "the simplest treatment is to raise the temperature to 93-94°F for 24-36 hours." Heat speeds up the normal life cycle of the parasite without stressing the fish as much. Quinine sulfate, quinine hydrochloride, and copper sulfate are also effective, but can kill snails and plants. Use carefully and exactly as directed.
        For heavily infested fish, a dip treatment may be useful. The fish is submerged in the concentrated salt or copper bath until it becomes acutely distressed, gasping at the surface, then is removed to a medicated tank.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 2000                    Return to top of page

        Many aquarists have found that using a "natural" killifish setup (a tank filled with plants such as Java moss, Watersprite, etc., and several pairs of fish) results in better fry production with less work, but some aquarists have taken the practice a step further.
        Here’s a suggestion that a number of breeders have found useful. Go to a craft store and purchase the plastic mesh used for needlepoint. It comes in varying grades of stiffness; the stiffer the better. This plastic "grating" material is inexpensive, easily cut to size, and makes excellent tank dividers and breeder containment structures. Its open weave allows good water flow-through, so all parts of the tank benefit from filtration, and small fry can easily swim through the mesh, while their parents can’t.
        If you place the tank with the short end towards the light and the parents in the back, "dark" compartment, the phototrophic fry will go through the mesh toward the light and safety, away from their parents. If the front of the tank is planted, the fry will find sufficient food to sustain them until being removed to different quarters.
Other breeders prefer to put two dividers in the tank, keeping a breeding pair of killifish in the center, planted, section. Fry would then migrate to either end of the tank for later collection.
- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 1999                    Return to top of page

Another Water Source – Dehumidifiers?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

A Primer on Peat Moss
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Peat moss is a staple ingredient of our hobby - as most killikeepers are well aware. But just what is peat - other than a water treatment/ acidifier and a cushioning and antibacterial storage media for killi eggs?
       Peat is the partially decayed, moisture absorbing plant matter found in ancient bogs and swamps. Given sufficient geologic time and pressure, peat will eventually turn into coal.
        Peat is generally available in three forms, all usable by aquarists, and all generally available at garden supply centers.
        Fibrous peat moss is the coarsest type available. It has broken down very little from its original state before being collected, dried and packaged. Fibrous peat is used by florists to camouflage the soil around potted plants. Aquarists use it as a spawning medium for plant spawning fish.
        Sphagnum peat has decayed considerably before being harvested, and consists of a mixture of coarser stuff mixed in with a good deal of finer, powdery material. It works well as a spawning medium or substrate, although the fine particles can cloud the water.
        Peat pellets are fine peat that has been compacted into a "wafer," which when wet will expand sufficiently to support a seedling plant. One pellet can provide enough peat for a pair of small to medium sized annual fish that prefer a finer, mud-like spawning medium. Since peat pellets were designed for the nursery trade, they come with or without plastic netting to help hold their shape, and with or without added fungicides and fertilizers. Be very careful what you buy, and read labels carefully. Jiffy brand #690 (without plastic netting) and #703 (with netting) are supposedly additive free.
        Readying peat for aquatic use consists of no more than boiling it well to drive out the air so it will sink. After cooling, it can be rinsed to remove the finer particles. Peat pellets can be microwaved in a cup of water (being certain to remove any plastic netting first), then rinsed in a net before use.
        The prepared peat may be used immediately, or stored for later use.
        The author squeezes out the excess liquid and stores the peat damp in a screw-top glass jar until needed. For larger amounts, Oleg Kiselev suggests using a 5-gallon bucket with the airlift on a small hex undergravel filter maintaining circulation. This keeps the peat sweet and provides a ready supply of "black water" as well.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 1996                    Return to top of page

Alternate Aquaria ... There's a wealth of opportunity out there 
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

a-q-uar-i-um 1. a container (as a glass bowl) or an artificial pond in which living aquatic animals or plants are kept. 2: an establishment where such aquatic collections are kept or exhibited. (Webster's Seventh new Collegiate Dictionary)

        Most of us still think of aquariums as basically rectangular glass or acrylic constructions that may vary in size from a couple of gallons to a hundred or more. But aquarists aren't limited to containers of these accepted definitions. Many others - some originally designed for quite different uses - can be used to hatch, raise, maintain, and breed fish.
       Plastic containers - shoe, sweater, and storage boxes - work very well as aquaria and are growing in popularity for everything from wetting peat to raising fry and serving as breeding tanks. Light, strong, resilient and easy to clean and handle, they can easily house small breeding colonies or lots of fry. To keep track of what is where, try using small stick-on labels on the containers, or keep a diagram. These containers are relatively inexpen-sive and are designed to stack neatly when not in use, making for more efficient use of limited space.
        Styrofoam. We usually think of this material as shipping boxes, but styrofoam containers (often used for shipment of foodstuffs or medications, as well as for picnic coolers) can work well as aquaria, too. Fill with water and appropriate plants, then cover with a screen (to keep the fish in and curious children and pets out). Be sure to test carefully for leaks (some styrofoam is not completely water tight), and wash well before use.
        Fiberglass tubs and boxes are sturdy, durable and easy to clean. if desired, a "window" can be cut in one side and glass or clear plastic installed using on the inside using silicone sealer. Plywood tanks can be a practical alternative for those requiring larger capacities. One-half or three-quarter inch marine plywood can be assembled with screws or screwable nails, then the inside coated with two to three coats of marine paint or polyester resin. A "window" can easily be added. These wooden tanks are not recommended for plecos, which tend to eat the resin coating, then the wood beneath. Every couple of years wooden tanks should be emptied and the surfaces checked, then recoated if necessary.

Other Possibilities
        Children's wading pools. Inexpensive and easily available, these can serve very well for daphnia ponds and similar uses, but are ultimately subject to breakdown from ultraviolet light.
       Plastic laundry baskets. Lined with a layer or two of 1-2 mil plastic, these can work quite well as aquaria. Range them along sturdy shelves or set them on the basement or patio floor, then throw in a mass of java or sphagnum moss (the coarse kind, not peat), and add fish. Some aquarists put a breeding pair in each container and leave them alone, except when feeding or harvesting fry.
        Watering troughs. These steel, heavy plastic or rubber containers may cost more than some of the other alternatives, but you get the benefits of high volume coupled with high durability. The steel ones will dent, and eventually rust, but the plastics are resilient, and there are no concerns about toxins or breakdown due to ultraviolet light.
        Bathtubs, refrigerator/freezer liners and the like are sometimes available and can be fairly easily adapted for aquatic use. Simply plug the holes with glass and silicone sealant and add a "window" if you like. These are durable, and highly functional.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter - November 1996                    Return to top of page

A Rose is a Rose ... or
Must We Use Those Latin Names?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        In a word, yes. The answer has nothing to do with elitism, and everything to do with precision.
        Newcomers to the aquatic hobby often bewail the fact that we use latin names, but any time you move beyond the most basic beginner level in the hobby, you will find the technical (latin) names in use at club meetings and auctions, among dedicated hobbyists, by the wholesalers, and by the scientific community.
        Before you begin to complain that species names are too long, too complex, and too difficult to pronounce (and some of them are real tongue-twisters), consider this: It is an inherent human behavior to "name" the things in our environment. If we all spoke the same language, this would be little problem. But my "big brown fish that lives in the shallows" might be called "toothy fish that lives in the mud" by my neighbor across the river. Same fish, different name. Multiply this by the number of languages and dialects in the geographic range of any given species, then by the number of different species that may inhabit a biotype, and you can begin to see the problem.
        Carolus Linnaeus saw it too, back in 1758, and proposed a system of binomial nomenclature that remains in worldwide use today. By precisely identifying any discovered, described organism, Linnaeus' taxonomic invention provided clarity to the literate/scientific community of his day. With refinements it does so still.
        The first word of the two (or more) part scientific name indicates the genus to which an organism belongs, based upon a group of attributes commonly shared; the second part denotes the species, a group of individuals potentially capable of interbreeding. By using scientific names anyonebe he a lepidopterist, a gardener, an orchid keeper, or an aquaristknows exactly what animal or plant is being discussed, no matter the country they are in or the language they speak.
        Scientific names utilize both Latin and Greek roots, since these languages were common to all learned men in the western world of Linnaeus' time.
        In many cases, the genus name is descriptive. Mustela, the genus for weasels, comes from the Latin mus and telos, meaning "a mouse like a spear."
        The second name may be descriptive; it may honor an individual by using a latinized version of a proper name; or it may reflect the namer's sense of humor. Cynolebias nigripinnis derives from the Greek kyon (dog) lebias (small fish), niger (black) and pinna (fin). Numerous species are named after the Drs. Axelrod and Jubb (axelrodi or jubbi); and more recently there has been Agra vation, a ground beetle whimsically named by Terry Erwin of the Smithsonian.
        In printed usage, the entire scientific name is usually shown in italics, with the first name capitalized and the second in lower case, as in Aphyosemion australe. When more than one reference is made to the same genus, the genus name is often abbreviated, thus A. australe.
        But an angelfish is an angelfish, you argue; a platy is a platy, a guppy is a guppy- even though they may now come in a wide variety of named colors and patterns. Why isn't a killifish just a killifish?
        It's a matter of genera.
        All angelfish belong to the genus Pterophyllum, either scalare or altum; only devoted breeders need worry about the difference. Likewise platies are all Xiphophorus variatus, X. maculatus, or hybrids of both. Guppies are all Poecilia reticulata, whatever their color pattern or finnage.
        Killikeepers and cichlid fanciers are dealing not with varieties of a single species, but with a number of related families (genera) of fish, each with numerous species.
        To complicate the issue further, both killi- and cichlid fanciers may also append location and collection data to the scientific names. Thus killikeepers encounter such names as Aphyosemion striatum Lambarene, or Nothobranchius eggersi Rufiji River Camp TAN 95/7 (Red).
        Although a long name seems confusing, the extra information exists for a reason. As Gary Elson has said, "There's a lot in a name, even if the name seems inordinately long. ... When I look at a killie I see beauty, but when I look at the name of a killie, I see a little bit of the history."
        In the case of N. eggersi, mentioned above, several collections of the species were made at different sites and at different times. Although appearing to be the same species, the fish may or may not be closely related; only further scientific study will determine that. The appended information codes allow breeders to maintain strains separately until such determinations are made.
        If appended information consists of a single proper name (such as Lambarene or Ngabu), it usually refers to a collection site or village name.
        Letter and number addenda are usually assigned by collectors in the field, and correlate with their maps and field notes. Thus we have the code shown above: Rufiji River Camp TAN 95/7 (Red). This indicates the collection site location (Rufiji River Camp), the country (TANzania), the year (1995), the number of the collection site (7), and the color type of the collected fish (Red). Other collection sites resulted in N. eggersi in the red form, a blue form, and some individuals of each.
        Also included in the addenda is color variety information, or strains bred from an original species, for example A. australe Chocolate or Aplocheilus lineatus Gold.
        Since the taxonomy of killifish is constantly evolving, it is of great importance to retain all of the collection and varietal information for a species. Species names, even family names, may change over time as scientists learn more about their interrelationships. In addition, some fish have been collected, described and named by more than one researcher. This results in the same species having several synonymous names, a confusion that is perpetuated by out of date publications, but clarified by subsequent research.
        A number of articles have appeared in aquarium publications attempting to clarify the taxonomic groupings of the killifish family, among them "Fundulopanchax: An Overview," by Gregory J. Niedzielski and David A. Franco, and "A Fundulopanchax timeline," compiled by Brent D. Kelley. Both appeared in the Journal of the American Killifish Association (JAKA), September-December 1995, and provide a comprehensive overview of that family and how its naming has changed. Brian Watters' compilation "The Status of Nothobranchius Species Populations in the HobbyPast and Present" on the AKA web page (http://www.aka.org) and in the Notho section of the Gallery provides a good perspective on the Nothos. Numerous other articles exist in both the commercial and the scientific literature.
        There are also a number of books available that provide excellent, if not always completely up to date, information. Recommended are Roger Langton's Wild Collections, which documents the recorded information about collections and explains the naming conventions; Killi-data '96 by Jean Huber; Rivulins of the Old World, by Gordon Scheel; Killifish Master Index by Ken Lazara; and for a more general coverage of fish classification, William Eschmeyer's Catalog of the Genera of Recent Fishes. Most of these volumes are available through specialty aquatic bookstores; many are available through the AKA.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 1997                    Return to top of page

Back to Basics …
The Beginning Killikeeper
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        If you’re just beginning to keep killifish, the things you don’t know may seem overwhelming. But remember, all of us were beginners once. We’ve all made (and still make) our share of mistakes, and once in a while it doesn’t hurt to review some of the basics, even for the experts.
        If you’re interested in killifish, you probably already have some experience with fishkeeping. You know about the importance of maintaining good water quality through filtration and frequent water changes, about the necessity for a varied diet and good nutrition, and about not mixing species that are incompatible, whether due to temperament or to maintenance requirements.
        Most killifish aren’t really all that difficult. In general, give them sufficient room, sufficient cover for comfort and spawning, sufficient food, and good enough water and they’ll do just fine.

General Maintenance
        One of the advantages of killies, of course, is that most of them are fairly small, thus don’t require large tanks to be happy. Five- and ten-gallon tanks are common, with some species happy in even smaller quarters.
Water?
        Most species will do quite well in well-seasoned or dechlorinated ordinary tap water. Aquarists who are raising fussier species, or whose water is particularly hard, may use Reverse Osmosis water or rainwater to temper their primary water source.
Plants and Lighting?
        You can use plants if you like, or not; have brightly lit tanks, or not. Killifish generally like some shade or cover, but they don’t seem to be particular. Some killikeepers use bright lighting, some very little; some have nothing in their tanks but yarn mops, others use plants extensively. Among the favorites are Java moss, Tropical hornwort, and Najas Grass, with Java Fern, the Anubias, and a number of the floating plants, such as Salvinia, Riccia, and Duckweed, also common.
Filtration?
        Again, it’s up to the individual and his or her personal situation and preferences. Some killikeepers insist on filtration, with air-driven sponge filters generally the preferred type, although outside filters are also common. Some killikeepers use no filtration at all and their fish do just fine on regular partial water changes.
Heating?
            Most species do quite well in the normal household temperature range of 65-75°F. There are, of course, some species that can tolerate much colder temperatures, and some that insist on higher ones. Use your own situation to dictate which species you might keep, or plan to supplement the heating.
Feeding?
        Killifish will do quite nicely on nothing more exciting than dry flake food. However, they will do better and will breed more freely if given a wide variety in their diet, preferably including live foods. Commercial choices include flake, pellet, freeze-dried, and frozen foods of many kinds. You can also make your own paste foods, or culture or collect your own live foods.

Breeding Killifish
        Ask any experienced aquarist, and you’ll hear the same thing: the aquarist doesn’t breed the fish, he or she simply provides suitable conditions, and the fish then breed freely (or not …). Many killifish are easy to breed – put a pair together and fry are inevitable. Other species are next to impossible even for the experienced aquarists among us. Breeding strategies fall into two basic types: the plant-spawners (such as the Aphyosemion and the Fundulopanchax species, for example) and the mud-spawners (Cynolebias and Nothobranchius, among others).
        The plant-spawners lay their eggs among the plant matter in their environment – underwater roots, fine-leafed floating plants, or the human-provided substitute, floating yarn mops. The eggs may then be hand picked for incubation in separate containers either in water or on wet peat, the adult fish may be removed, or the eggs left on the mops and the mops removed. The simplest breeding method is to place the adults in a heavily planted tank, feed them well, and simply let nature take its course. For species that prey on their young, the resulting fry are removed by the aquarist as they appear.
        The mud-spawners prefer to spawn on or in the bottom, among the mud and decaying plant matter. Fine peat moss is the usual aquarium substitute. After a week of spawning, the peat is removed, the excess water squeezed out, and the resulting material stored for a time appropriate to the species. After incubation, the peat is then flooded with water, and if all has gone well, the fry hatch.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 2000                    Return to top of page

Back to Basics ...
Planning the Fishroom
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        You've decided that it's time to build (or to redesign) your fishroom.
        It's an exciting, and daunting, prospect. But before you get carried away, let's review some of the basics.
        By definition, a fishroom is a place where you keep and maintain fish. It may be as simple as a couple of tanks in the corner of the living room, or as complex as a room (or even a separate building) specifically designed for aquatic use.
        What do you need for a fishroom? The same things you need for a single aquarium. A location. Tanks and stands. A supply of clean water and a place to dispose of dirty water. Some way to keep the water clean. Power for lights and pumps. A place for storage.

The Location
        Location of the fishroom is important. You want it to be easily accessible so you will spend time there feeding and observing your fish and doing maintenance chores. At the same time, you don't want it to endure excessive traffic, noise, or pollutants, such as cooking and chemical odors.
        However, a fishroom may be located anywhere, assuming that it meets a few basic criteria.
        Flooring must be durable enough to contend with water spills and rough treatment, and strong enough to bear the combined weight of all the tanks, stands, and water. If your floor is a concrete slab, this is no problem; if you're planning to put the fishroom on wooden flooring laid over joists, you may have to carefully consider both the total weight and its proper distribution; free standing floors are designed to bear specific maximum weight loads. Study the area you plan to use and check your local building codes to determine what extra supports you may need to add.
        Temperatures. The average temperatures in the fishroom must be neither excessively cool nor hot. They should lie within ranges tolerable to the fish, and be easily warmed or cooled as needed. In some cases, this may require the use of an air conditioner or supplemental heat, or the addition of insulation or ventilation.

Tanks and Stands
        Tanks may be whatever you can build, buy, or otherwise acquire. Having tanks in uniform sizes and capacities may make stand design or usage more efficient, but is not necessary.
        Whatever tanks you use, you'll need strong stands to hold them and their contents of water, gravel, plants, fish and decorations, stands that are wide enough to utilize the length of lights you plan to use, deep enough to properly support the tanks, and tall enough to allow you adequate working room for catching fish, changing water, and tank maintenance.
        If you're handy, you can build your own stands from 2x4 lumber or from cinder blocks and 2x12s. The commercial heavy duty stands sold at lumber yards are strong enough to bear the weight, come in 3- and 4-foot lengths, and can be grouped together to produce longer units.
        Both vertical and stepped designs are possible, usually with the smaller tanks at the top and the larger ones at the bottom. Tanks may be side by side or "ends out," to maximize use of available space. Individual shelf height is dependent on the size of the tanks, the lighting arrangement, and your own working "comfort zone".

Water, Filtering, and Heating Systems
        The water. We're less concerned here with what kind of water you have than how you will get it to and from your tanks. For smaller fishrooms, aging and moving water using buckets or plastic jugs may be adequate. For larger fishrooms buckets may prove utterly impractical, and the use of large heavy duty plastic or fiberglass containers may better serve for water storage, with delivery accomplished via hose and submersible pump.
        Some larger fishrooms use centralized water systems that automatically provide fresh or filtered water, and remove waste. Although such systems are more costly and time-consuming to install, they generally result in cleaner tanks with less work. On the downside, all tanks on a system share the same water at similar temperatures, the same chemistry, and in the case of disease, exposure to the same pathogens.
        The filtering system. There are two basic types of filtering systems for fishrooms: central systems, and distributed systems.
        A central filtering system utilizes a single pump and filter to process all the water from a series of connected tanks. Central filtering eliminates the need for individual tank filters and heaters, thus reducing maintenance time. It does require a better, more complex, high volume filter, a water pump, and PVC or similar piping for water distribution and collection. It may or may not require drilling the tanks, a tricky proposition. For use with air, PVC piping may simply be friction fitted; for use with water, gluing with proper adhesive is essential.
        A distributed filtering system utilizes individual filters for each tank, all of them driven from a centralized air pump or pumps that feed the system using PVC pipe or airline tubing. With this system, the fishkeeper can use airstones or any of the various types of air driven filters--undergravel, box, or sponge. A central air supply requires a large air pump(s), an air compressor, or an air blower. Large air pumps can run up to 30 tanks or so, depending on size, and are fairly quiet. Air compressors drive small volumes of air at high pressure (measured in pounds per square inch [PSI]). Air blowers provide a large volume of air at low pressure (measured in cubic feet per minute [CFM]).
        Heating. If you're using a central filtering system, you can install a heater in the filter sump or the supply tank to heat the water for the entire system, but not all tanks will be exactly the same temperature. Especially in larger systems, tanks at the far end of the delivery line may be somewhat cooler. Alternatively, the room can be heated, or you can use individual tank heaters as needed.

The Power Supply and Lighting
        Whatever your fishroom plans may be, you will need power, for electricity will drive many of the systems, from lights to pumps to heaters. Most circuits can manage at least 15 amps of power and a small fishroom will seldom require more than this. Be certain to always follow the basic rules for electrical safety; installation of a ground fault interrupt plug is highly recommended.
        Although most of us manage with what we have or can scrounge, general agreement if you're starting from scratch is that 4-foot long, two tube commercial fluorescent fixtures ("shop lights") are the most economical bet. They're inexpensive (sometimes even free) and widely available. Standard fluorescent bulbs work quite well for aquaria, but you can replace them with other types if you like. Smaller sizes of fluorescent fixtures are also available, but are more expensive.
        To simplify operation, be sure to include an automatic timer in the system if at all possible.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 1998                    Return to top of page

Back to Basics ...
What Filter Do I Need?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

Why filter?
        The "why" is simple. Filters clean the water, reduce toxic solubles, exercise the fish, and reduce maintenance time. That’s sufficient reason to use filtration in your aquaria, but even the best systems are only a pale imitation of what occurs in nature. The natural hydrological cycle evaporates water from the seas and lakes and releases it as rain, which filters through soil and rocks, then forms ponds and streams that eventually flow back to the sea. Recreating this cycle, even in small part, benefits the inhabitants of our aquaria.
        But what is the best system? That depends on your aquaria and its needs.
        In aquaria, filtration follows a pattern similar to that in nature, but on a much smaller scale. Water evaporates from the surface and must be replaced. The remaining water is cleaned by drawing it through filter media where colonizing bacteria help clear it of toxins and residues. Living plants also help utilize waste- and by-products produced by the fish.
        This waste, otherwise known as mulm, is a particulate sludge that sinks to the bottom of the tank and the filters. It is not wholly detrimental, since it contains bacteria that aid in the breakdown of nitrite and ammonia, but it is unsightly and contributes to cloudiness. Undergravel filters tend to pull this mulm down into the gravel, where it is further broken down.
        The box filter is, perhaps, the most simplified version of the natural hydrological cycle. Mulm is trapped inside the box filter by the foam or polyester floss. Gravel or carbon can also be used in the filters, and the entire structure can easily be removed for cleaning.
        Simple air-driven foam filters are ideal for breeding tanks. Fry are not drawn into the filter and the mulm collected on the surface of the foam develops a layer of bacteria and infusoria on which the fry feed.
        Power filters are the most useful for cleaning water, with both internal and external designs available. Internal filters are unobtrusive and silent and contain a foam insert that is easy to clean. Carbon can also be added, or ceramic filter material. External power filters are more powerful, producing up to a twice per hour throughput, and require less maintenance. Flow rates vary, depending on the type of filter material used. External filters are often houseed beneath the aquarium, so must lift against the head of water above them. The ideal situation is to have the filter placed beside the aquarium. A downside to power filters is noise. Since the impeller gradually wears the chamber, an annoying rattle can develop with age.
        For perfectly clear water, the filter media should filter down to one micron in size, or less. Diatomaceous earth (the silica shells of microscopic animals) is ideal for this. However, diatom filters clog rapidly and require cleaning within an hour or so. They are thus best suited for occasional use as polishing filters. Since they are also expensive, private purchase is often not practical; some clubs have purchased a unit and circulated it among the members.
        Most species of fish enjoy water flow and actually swim in the output of the power filters. A stillwater area is recommended, however, and is easily arranged by the use of a few rocks or a flowerpot on its side.
        The secret of success with any filtering system is regular cleaning and making certain that the unit is level so water flows properly.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, February 1999                    Return to top of page

Beginner? Advanced? Expert Aquarist?
Where Do You Fall?

        We’re all continually learning in this hobby.
        People of all skill levels and interests keep fish. We do, however, fall into several loose classifications, defined by our level of interest, our degree of knowledge and expertise, and our level of activity, both with our own fish and in the hobby as a whole. Amateur aquarists range from those who have simply decided that they want to keep an aquarium to the most highly skilled breeders of "impossible" species. And someone who is considred an expert in one area may be a rank beginner in another.
        All aquarists, however, seem to move through a definable series or stages of development, as they learn to deal with new techniques, new equipment, new fish.
Which stage are you in?

The Beginner
        "Beginner" is a broad stage, marked by a number of quit/don’t quit crises. The beginner has decided that he wants to keep fish; has bought equipment and fish; set up the aquarium, filled it with water and put in the fish. The beginner stage is traditionally plagued by reactionary effort, with problems becoming critical before even being noticed. The new fish are soon dying, or he’s faced with the problems of leaky tanks and malfunctioning equipment. At this stage he may 1) quit, with the tank ending up in a garage sale; or 2) he may not quit, learning from the experience and moving on, to try again.
        If the beginner doesn’t become too discouraged, he starts to become more observant, paying more attention to the fish and their environment. He begins to seek out information, to read and to learn more about his new hobby. Soon he can keep hardy fish alive, and perhaps even begin to breed a few of the easier livebearer species, such as guppys or mollies. He still faces regular crises of disease and panic (quit), but he’s trying hard (don’t quit). Even so, quitting is still a very real possibility. A good many people never get past this stage.
        Slowly, however, the learning beginner starts to gain confidence. The first major indicator of achievement is reached when he buys a fish "costing more than a dollar." Soon regular water changes become part of the routine, and both the fish and the tank are usually disease-free. But disaster can - and usually does - still strike. When it does, the budding aquarist usually either gives up completely (quit), or moves on to the next stage (don’t quit).

The Novice
        Most hobbyists, by definition, are at the novice, or intermediate level, but this stage can include a wide range of interest levels and abilities. Some hobbyists never move beyond the beginning of this stage, and are simply content to kep a pretty aquarium. They have minimal interaction with other hobbyists, often because they don’t know of any others, or of local groups. Most of their expertise still comes from their local dealer.
        More advanced hobbyists often do not consider individuals at this level of activity to be true hobbyists.
        The amateur aquarist may begin to add books to his own personal aquatic library, even as he gains from his own personal experiences and his growing interactions with others. He may rapidly proceed to a more skilled level, and begin to encounter the "two opposite answers to the same question" problem, but only after a good deal more experience will he develop enough to benefit from such conflicting information. The hobbyist also begins to add tools to his arsenal: water test kits, microscopes, etc.
        The novice level can be characterized by a number of definable stages, but the progression is not linear. Any aquarist may be in any of the following stage(s) at any given time.
        Expansion - Will a tank fit there? Will that shelf, that piece of furniture hold an aquarium? In advanced cases, plans for fishrooms blossom and spouses cringe as sketches fly and hammer and nails compete with saw and wood shavings.
        Latinate - The hobbyist begins to recognize and to use proper scientific names; he stops calling a cichlid a chicklid. The uninitiated around such a budding aquarist can be easily convinced that the hobbyist knows more than he really does.
        Joiner - This is usually triggered by a growing need to have others to talk to about the hobby. A great deal of education can occur at this stage, along with a great deal of confusion, since conflicting information may be forthcoming on any given topic.
        "Catch ‘em or Grow ‘em" - Suddenly the simple maintenance of fish in an aquarium isn’t quite enough. The aquarist begins to want to feed live foods, and to catch or to grow both foods and fish. Caution is required during this stage, since long periods of fish madness or an escaped or soured food culture can drive a spouse to issue ultimatums.
         Local Guru - The hobbyist is usually fairly advanced in knowledge by this point, and begins to be asked to lecture at meetings. He’s also liable to receive phone calls at odd hours asking him to help solve other aquarist’s problems.
        Growth and Specialty - Bigger is better; smaller tanks are replaced by bigger ones, increasing the danger to fingers and toes. The hobbyist begins to take due or undue pride in a single fish or species of fish, and often begins to enter his fish in shows. Specialization in a particular group of fishes, such as angelfish, catfishes or killifish may occur.

The Advanced Aquarist
        This is about as far as one can go and remain a hobbyist. Basic construction skills - carpentry, plumbing, electrical work - have all been mastered during construction of the fishroom. Numerous errors of management and judgement have been made and overcome. The fish are spawning readily and the fry are being sold.
        The line between hobbyist and professional begins, imperceptibly, to blur.
        Some willingly and successfully make the transition beyond hobbyist status.
        The vast majority of us are content to simply breed the best fish we can, to share our knowledge, to assist others in their learning experiences, and to enjoy this hobby that couples a great deal of visual and psychological pleasure with a little bit of biology, a little genetics, and a little ecology.
        Did you find yourself desscribed above? If you’re enjoying the hobby, does it really matter?

References:
Hemdal, Jay, "The Making of a Hobbyist," Aquarium Fish Magazine, October 1990, pp. 39-47.
Mortensen, Jim, "If I Had Only Known," Freshwater and Marine Aquarium, April 1986, pp. 32-34

- GCK Newsletter, December 1997                    Return to top of page

Burnout!
By Donna M. Recktenwalt 

A Few Suggestions …
        "The best number of species to keep is different for everyone," Lou points out, "but here are some ‘rules of thumb’ that I use to keep exhaustion to a minimum:"
        1. Keep the fish biomass low; don’t overpopulate your tanks.
        2. Feed live foods as often as possible, but feed flake food daily for ease of feeding and variety.
        3. Use plants such as Java moss and water sprite to keep nitrates and nitrites low and to provide shelter. Use snails to keep things clean.
        4. Establish natural breeding setups whenever possible.
        5. Organize the fishroom for minimal effort.
        6. Watch your expenses! Do without special things; improvise.
        7. Occasionally find a fish you really like, that is rare, or that hasn’t been heard of in a while. Concentrate on succeeding with this fish.
        8. Try to buy two or three pairs of the same species to avoid "widows and orphans." Share some of the fry with a friend, so you’ll have "spares" in case of disaster.
        9. Cut back severely if you get burned out; take a break. "Maybe you need a good nine-month diapause?" suggests Lou. "If so, specialize in a few of the longer-cycling annuals and use your exhaustion to your advantage with the longer incubation times."
        10. Don’t become a monomaniac. Develop interests other than killies to keep things in balance!

References:  Viega, Lou. "Killie Burnout: Musings on the Internet–Part One." Killie Dirt, September/October 1997, Volume IV Number 5, pp. 10-11.
Davis, Scott. "Killie Burnout: Musings on the Internet–Part Two." Killie Dirt, September/October 1997, Volume IV Number 5, pp. 11-12.
Wiley, Melanie. "Burn Out!" Exclusively Killies Newsletter, March 1999.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 2000                    Return to top of page

Carbonate Hardness

        A term that is readily recognized by most aquarists is "carbonate hardness." But what, exactly, does it mean?
        Carbonate hardness is the result of contact between water (H2O) containing carbon dioxide (CO2) and lime or chalk (CaCO3). Carbon dioxide reduces calcium carbonate to calcium hydrogen carbonate, which imparts carbonate hardness to nearly all fresh waters. In salt lakes, carbonate hardness is partially due to sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ). Many municipal waterworks add chalk or lime to the extremely soft water to prevent corrosion of piping.
        The pH value of aquarium water is determined by the ratio of carbonate hardness and carbon dioxide. In most natural waters, the overall hardness consists mostly of carbonate hardness; when it is high, so is pH. When breeding fish, carbonate hardness influences egg maturation, embryo hatching, and the well being of the fry.
        Many species have become adjusted to their particular water conditions; under certain conditions, some plants can even utilize carbonate ions as a substitute for CO2. This biogenic declassification can reduce the carbonate hardness of an aquarium over time.
        The usual form of nitrate seen in aquaria is nitric acid; this, too can absorb carbonate hardness. If the nitrate content of the water increases by 22 mg/l, carbonate hardness will be reduced by 1 dKH. In extreme instances, this process can lead to acid fall, a drop in pH so severe that the fish die.
        In tanks with good biological filtration, the pH usually remains quite stable, since denitrification daily removes the same amount of nitrate that is present.
        Carbonate hardness can also be formed in the aquarium. Carbon dioxide fertilizers can dissolve chalk which is present in the substrate or decorations, increasing the hardness. The simplest way of increasing the carbonate hardness is to dissolve sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ), more commonly known as bicarbonate of soda, or baking powder. A heaped teaspoon in 100 liters of water increases the carbonate hardness by 3.3 dH. This should not be used in extremely soft water, since bicarbonate of soda contains neither calcium nor magnesium.
        Reducing carbonate hardness is most simply accomplished by dilution with distilled or fully desalinated (RO) water, or by filtering the water through peat. Using peat in an aquarium filter for several weeks or more, however, may have the reverse effect, since the material biologically decomposes and releases large amounts of minerals.

References:
Kassebeer, Dr. Gerd. "An Analytical Course for Aquarists," Part III, Carbonate hardness of the aquarium water.
     Today's Aquarium, April 1986.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1998                    Return to top of page

Cleaning Aquaria
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Cleanliness in our aquaria - the homes for the fish we keep - is an important aspect of fishkeeping.
        We all know that.
        Normal cleanliness, of course, varies from fishroom to fishroom and tank to tank, but usually involves such regular maintenance as wiping down the glass and lids, changing or rinsing out filter media, and doing regular partial water changes. All of these procedures are designed to keep our finned charges healthy and relatively happy.
        Cleanliness varies, too, depending on the intended use of particular aquaria. Cleanliness in an established community tank, for example, may not be adequate for a breeding tank, or one used for rearing fry.
        But what cleaning agents can you use to really clean and disinfect a tank after disease has gained a hold, for instance, or when first setting up equipment long unused, or from another source?
        Several effective cleaning/disinfecting agents suitable for aquatic use are available in many homes, including salt, household bleach, hydrogen peroxide, and clear ammonia. Other, less common but equally effective cleaning agents are ethyl alcohol and potassium permanganate. Each has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
        Whatever cleaning agent you use, be sure to wash down everything that is used in and around the tank. Not only the tank itself, to and including the rim, the sides and the cover, but also the filter and filter box and all intake and outflow tubing, both air and water. At the same time it's a good idea to clean nets, temporary containers for fish or food, algae scrapers, and anything else that is used in and around your tanks on which pathogens could hitch a ride from diseased to healthy fish or tanks. This list can also include the plants, the gravel, and other fish.
        Herewith, a brief overview of several cleaning agents.
        Salt is perhaps the most commonly used cleaning agent for aquaria and related items. Incoming plants can be soaked in a salt solution to effectively kill or weaken a major proportion of unwanted "visitors" that sometimes sneak in among the leaves or roots. Poured on a damp rag, salt will scour and polish tank glass. Salt rinses away cleanly, although minor residual amounts will benefit most killifish.
        Common household bleach (5% sodium hypochloriteClorox or its generic equivalent) does a fine job of disinfecting aquaria and related equipment. For most uses a mixture of 1 cup bleach per gallon of water (1:16) will work well. Some prefer a stronger mix, with 1 part bleach to 9 parts water. Either works effectively as a rinse, a net soak, and a general disinfectant. For most purposes, a brief soaking or rinse with the mixture is sufficient. For more worrisome pathogens, or to thoroughly sterilize equipment, let soak in the bleach solution for 24 hours.
        Removing residual bleach may be difficult, although usually a thorough clear water rinse followed by air drying will suffice. However, plastics may actually absorb some of the hypochlorite. For plastics, an "airing out" period is essential. An alternate method is to give the cleaned items a thorough secondary wash with diluted acid or plain (white) vinegar, which is roughly 7.5% acetic acid. Dilute the vinegar 1:20 with water for a reagent that will destroy any bleach residue. A clear water rinse will then remove the acid. Do not add vinegar directly to the bleach solution the result will be toxic chlorine gas!
        Hydrogen peroxide is used both as a bleach and as a disinfectant, and is commonly found in the medicine chest. Hydrogen peroxide kills bugs on contact. Most hydrogen peroxide comes in a 35% solution; a 5% solution is recommended for aquatic use. The solution decomposes rather quickly, leaving no residue, and it is easier on the hands than is bleach. Be sure to store any unused 5% solution in the refrigerator. Peroxide concentrate can become explosive if it gets too warm keep it at 80F or less.
        Clear ammonia. Most households have a container of clear (not sudsy) ammonia on hand. A 1:4 mix with water will sterilize almost anything and leave no residue behind. Ammonia may be rough on your nose, but it rinses away cleanly with several hot water washes. Any remaining traces will be broken down by the microbes in the filter bed, which handle this type of ammonia just as they do naturally produced ammonia in the tank.
        Ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Although bacteria can live quite well in pure alcohol (190 proof), a 75% solution (150 proof) will work quite well to kill the majority of them. The solution destroys the cell walls of the bacteria, making it an effective disinfecting agent. Alcohol evaporates quickly, leaving no residue.
        Potassium permanganate. If you enjoy working with what looks like dilute grape juice, try a 1% solution of potassium permanganate. Initially it will stain, but as it oxidizes organic material it produces manganese dioxide, a brown sludge. The cleanser is good for glass and plastics, but it isn't recommended for such items as nets, breeding mops, or clothing. If you do get a stain where you don't want it (on your clothes, for example), you can dissolve the stain by using hydrogen peroxide. 
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1997                    Return to top of page

Cleaning Old Tanks
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        You’ve decided to use that old tank that’s been sitting on the back porch for a couple of years, or you’ve just acquired a tank that’s been sitting in someone else’s basement for who knows how long. It’s a mess– not only filthy and cobwebbed, but encrusted with all kinds of mineral deposits from poor care and neglect.
        Cleaning off the ordinary dirt is simple: a stiff brush and good hot water will take care of most of it. A chlorine and water rinse will eliminate any unwanted pathogens that may still be present.
But what to do about those unsightly mineral deposits? The first advice from some who have been there is to not use detergents of any kind, since they can leave residues harmful to fish.
        The second advice is to use white vinegar and lots of good, muscular scrubbing. It takes work, but usually works pretty well. Just be certain to rinse out the tank well afterwards.
        However, sometimes vinegar and good effort isn’t enough. Wright Huntley has used a product called "CLR," available at hardware stores. This is an acid, "not quite as aggressive as pool acid, but be careful anyway," he recommends, since it will burn skin and can damage patio cement. Heavy encrustations of minerals can be attacked with a razor blade scraper after softening in the acid.
        Lee Harper reports that "Lime-off," sold in pet stores for tank cleaning purposes, will work, as will Real Lemon artificial lemon flavor, which contains citric acid. "Probably muriatic acid (with appropriate personal protection – rubber gloves and eye protection) or perhaps Cherry Coke (pH about 4.5) would work," he adds. With any of these materials a single edge razor blade is also required, to scrape off the softened deposits.
        If the tank has been used for saltwater, a "haze" may be etched into the glass surface. Unless you were planning to use the tank for display purposes, this poses no problem, although it may result in reduced visibility through the etched areas. In addition, algae growth on the glass in the etched area may be next to impossible to remove.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 1999                    Return to top of page

Collecting in Florida - Exotics and Killifish Too!
By Donna M. Recktenwalt   

        With the Suncoast Killifish Society hosting the American Killifish Association show in Tampa in May 2000, it’s time to think about all the things a visit to the SunShine State can offer. Based on what we’re hearing from the show committee, the opportunities for collecting in the Tampa area will be numerous, and since Florida is home (albeit accidentally) to a number of non-native species as well, the possibilities are boundless.
        What might you find? Cichlids¹; livebearers, including guppies, swordtails, and platies of various kinds; a variety of sucker catfishes; and of course, natives, including a number of shiners, chubs, madtoms,, darters, sunfishes, and of course killifish.
        Many of the exotic fishes to be found in Florida were introduced by well-meaning, although misguided, hobbyists, who set their fish free when they grew tired of them. Others were stocked as potential game fish by the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission. A good number became established after escape from the area’s many tropical fish farms.
        A number of the intruder species pose potential threats to the state’s native fishes, either by preying directly on them or by out-competing them for food and living space. Collecting a of few these exotics to take home will help ease the potential harm they may cause.

Hazards!
        However eager you are to wade in and collect, remember that Florida is not only home to a number of interesting fish, but also to several other animals that can be downright dangerous.
        Alligators are definitely a hazard, and should be avoided. A precaution you can take is to poke a stick in the bottom ahead of you as you wade; this will frighten the alligators, and warn you of holes and soft spots. Although most alligators will avoid people, some may become very aggressive, and can do serious damage. If in doubt, leave the site to the ‘gators. If you do encounter one and are chased, try running in a zig-zag pattern; they move quickly, but don’t change direction well. If attacked, fight as hard as you can.
        Some poisonous snakes, such as the Water Moccasin and the Coral Snake, are also native to Florida. Scare them away by beating the brush from around the shore before you wade in; also glance around regularly at the water to see if any are swimming your way. If possible, avoid snakes; never kill one. If bitten, seek medical aid immediately.
        Fire Ants can be a problem in Florida. Watch where you step so you don’t stand on a nest, usually appearing as a sandy elevation up to a few feet across, or a large, conical earth mound. Boots, long pants and protective clothing can help prevent stings. If stung, wash with soap and water, then swab with antiseptic. Ice will help. Although painful, the stings aren’t usually dangerous.

References
De Bruyn, Henri. "Florida Killifish, Their Natural Environment, Behavior and Breeding, Part I. Journal of the American Killifish Association, May/June 1999, Volume 32, No. 3, pp. 100.
De Bruyn, Henri. "Florida Killifish, Their Natural Environment, Behavior and Breeding, Part II. Journal of the American Killifish Association, July/August 1999, Volume 32, No. 4, pp. 116-128.
Ganley, Thomas and Robert Bock. "Fish Collecting in Florida: Part 1," Aquarium Fish Magazine, November 1998, pp. 31-41.
Ganley, Thomas and Robert Bock. "Fish Collecting in Florida: Part 2." Aquarium Fish Magazine, December 1998, pp. 43-53.
Page, Lawrence M. and Brooks M. Burr. Peterson Field Guides: Freshwater Fishes. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991.

– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, February 2000                Return to top of page

Collecting in Florida - The Fish
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

The Cichlids^1,2
    Black acara (Cichlasoma bimaculatum)
    Blackchin mouthbrooder (Sarotherodon melanotheron)¹
    Black Port Cichlid (C. bimaculatum)
    Blue Tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)¹
    Firemouth Cichlid (Cichlasoma [Herichthys] meeki)
    Fivespot Tilapia (Tilapia mariae)¹
    Jack Dempsey (Cichlasoma [Herichthys] octofasciatum)
    Jewel Cichlid (Hemichromis bimaculatus)
    Mayan Cichlid (Cichlasoma [Herichthys] urophthalmus)
    Midas Cichlid/Red Devil (Cichlasoma [Herichthys] citrinellum)
    Mozambique Mouthbrooder (Oreochromis mossambicus)¹
    Oscar (Astronotus ocellatus)
    Peacock Cichlid (Cichla ocellaris)²
    Redstriped Eartheater (Geophagus surinamensis)
    Rio Grande (Texas) Cichlid (Cichlasoma [Herichthys] cyanoguttatum)
    Spotted Tilapia (Tilapia mariae)¹

Natives
    Banded Pygmy Sunfish (Elassoma zonatum)
    Blackbanded Darter (Percina nigrofasciata)
    Bluespot Sunfish (Enneacanthus gloriosus)
    Brown Darter (Etheostoma edwini)
    Coastal Shiner (Notropis petersoni)
    Everglades Pygmy Sunfish (Elassoma evergladei)
    Flagfin Shiner, Sailfin Shiner (Pteronotropis signipinnis)
    Ironcolor Shiner (Notropic chalyboeus)
    Least Killifish (Heterandria formosa)
    Okefenokee Pygmy Sunfish (Elassoma okefenokee)
    Pirate Perch (Aphredoderus sayanus)
    Pugnose Minnow (Opsopoeodus emiliae)
    Speckled Madtom (Notorus leptacenthus)
    Swamp Darter (Etheostoma fusiforme)
    Tadpole Madtom (Notorus gyrinus)
    Taillight Shiner (Notropic maculatus)

Native Killifish
        Adinia xenica (Diamond Killifish) – Prefers mangrove canals. Found with R. marmoratus and F. confluentus, often with Gambusia and Poecelia [Molenesia] lattipina; has an Epiplatys-like head spot. Breeds at 70-75°F at 1.010 salinity or above.
        Cyprinodon variegatus variegatus (Sheepshead Minnow) – Saltwater lagoons and mangroves. Territorial breeders that prefer 70°F or so, with 1.010 salinity or above.
        Cyprinodon variegatus hubbsi (Sheepshead Minnow) – Central, moderately hard, alkaline freshwater lakes. More elongated body that variegatus. Found with sunfishes and F. seminolis, swims in schools near the bottom. Breeds at 68-74°F.
        Floridichthys carpio – Saltwater dweller found in lagoons and mangrove areas with C. varigatus, F. similis, and L. parva. Bottom dwellers with seaweed.
        Fundulus cingulatus (Banded Topminnow) – Often found with F. chrysotus, in northern and central Florida. Prefers soft, acid water. Some scientists believe the F. cingulatus from the Panhandle is actually F. auroguttatus, with the more southern/ eastern type is F. rubrifrons.
        Fundulus chrysotus (Golden Topminnow, Golden Ear) – Found all over Florida, usually beneath surface plants. Breeds at 76° to 78°F.
        Fundulus confluentus –Found in both fresh- and salt water. Prefers hard, alkaline water. Breeds at 60-70°F.
        Fundulus escambiae – Similar to F. chrysotus and F. cingulatus; Panhandle area. Prefers shallow, soft, acid water with lots of plant cover.
        Fundulus grandis – Salt or brackish water, usually in mangrove or flat lagoon areas with seagrass. Often found with C. variegatus, F. carpio, and F. similis. Breeds at 75-80°F, hard, alkaline water at 1.010 salinity.
        Fundulus heteroclitus, majalis, jenkinsi, grandis saguanus – Salt or brackish water species.
        Fundulus lineolatus (Lined Topminnow) – North and north central Florida. Surface swimmers; prefers shallow, soft, slightly acid water.
        Fundulus olivaceus – Panhandle area. Have an Epiplatys-like head spot. Swim close to the bank at the edges of open water.
        Fundulus seminolis (Seminole Killifish) – Schooling fish that prefer the bottom of hard, alkaline waters. Large, hard to catch.
        Fundulus similis – Saltwater species, found with F. grandis. Needs at least 1.012 salinity.
        Leptolucania ommata (Pygmy Killifish) – Found in very soft, slightly acid water, in shallow areas with dense vegetation. Prefers it warm (77°F) for breeding.
        Lucania goodiae (Bluefin Killifish) – Likes plant cover, swims just beneath the surface. Breeds at 74-76°F or above.
        Lucania parva (Rainwater Killifish) – Salt to brackish shallow water in lagoons, hiding in seaweed etc. Often found with C. variegatus, F. grandis, F. carpio, and F. similis. Breeds better with salinity at 68-70°F.
        Jordallea floridae (Flagfish) – Shallow, heavily vegetated waters with muddy bottoms. May act like cichlids in spawning, or lay eggs on plants.
        Rivulus marmoratus – Salt or brackish water species, usually found hiding in the detritus in mangrove areas.

Other Exotics
    Croaking Gourami (Trichopsis vittata)
    Goldfish (Cerarsius auratus)
    Green Swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri)
    Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis)
    Oriental weatherfish (Misgurnus auguillicaudatus)
    Pike killifish (Belonesox belizanus)
    Platy (Xiphophorus maculatus)
    Radiated Ptero (Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus)
    Sailfin Molly (Poecilia latipinna)
    Suckermouth catfish (family Loricariidae)
    Various Hypostomus (including H. commersonii) have been reported; as has the Sailfin Catfish
        (Liposarcus multiradiatus).
    Variable Platy (Xiphophorus variatus)
    Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus)³

Notes
¹ It is illegal in Florida to possess or transport live fish of the Tilapia, Sarotherodon and Oreochromis genera.
² Note that the Speckled Peacock Bass (Cichla temensis) and the Butterfly Peacock Bass (Cichla ocellaris) were stocked as game      fish. If caught by other than rod and reel, they must be immediately released.
³ Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus). Possession illegal without a permit.

References
De Bruyn, Henri. "Florida Killifish, Their Natural Environment, Behavior and Breeding, Part I. Journal of the American
    Killifish Association, May/June 1999, Volume 32, No. 3, pp. 100.
De Bruyn, Henri. "Florida Killifish, Their Natural Environment, Behavior and Breeding, Part II. Journal of the American
    Killifish Association, July/August 1999, Volume 32, No. 4, pp. 116-128.
Ganley, Thomas and Robert Bock. "Fish Collecting in Florida: Part 1," Aquarium Fish Magazine, November 1998, pp. 31-41.
Ganley, Thomas and Robert Bock. "Fish Collecting in Florida: Part 2." Aquarium Fish Magazine, December 1998, pp. 43-53.
Page, Lawrence M. and Brooks M. Burr. Peterson Field Guides: Freshwater Fishes. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, February 2000                    Return to top of page

Collection Codes - A Primer
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        In a previous issue we attempted to demystify those hard to read, impossible to pronounce Latin names that are so important to maintaining precision and clarity. The organization of Latin names is simple enough, with genera first and species names second. But what about those appendages of words and numbers that often follow them? What are they? What do they mean?
        Take, for example: Aphyosemion australe Gold, or Nothobranchius palmqvisti TAN 94/7.
        In the case of A. australe, Gold designates a particular strain; A. australe comes in Gold and Red-orange color varieties in addition to the original Chocolate form. For N. palmqvisti, "TAN 94/7" is a collection code.
        Collection (or location) codes provide basic information regarding the year and the location of the collection, and often include a place name, or coordinates. They are traditionally assigned in the field by the collectors, usually based on some combination of country names, map locations, collection site numbers, and dates. In the above example, TAN stands for Tanzania, the country of collection; 94 for 1994, the year of collection; the 7 indicates that the collection was made at the seventh site visited, with the number usually referenced to a map.
        But not all codes follow the same pattern.
        "What [we] ... usually do is to use a code that one can work with," says Geert van Huijgevoort. "For example: CSK95-#. (C)ameroon, (S)EC-(K)FN-1995." But any code is of value only if the person(s) who collected the fish publish the information about where the fish were captured.
        Although the presence of location codes as part of species names is important, it does not guarantee that those who purchase the fish, then breed and distribute them, will append the proper code information to fish they distribute. In all good conscience, errors are made: labels get damaged, handwriting can't be read; the details haven't been adequately recorded, the original bags have been destroyed. This leads to confusion as others perpetuate the original error.You may have beautiful fish, but without a location code they must be designated as "aquarium strain."
        Other complicating factors abound. Location names may change over time. An example is A. poliaki Monea. "Monea" no longer exists in the area around Mount Cameroon. Closest in name is a village called Muea, along the road from Douala to Kumba, right in the middle of A. poliaki's range. However, since the name "Monea" can't be proven as wrong, the fish is maintained under this location name.
        In some cases, you will find a location code that states "x kilometers from (name)." Although somewhat awkward, this system, which is widely used in Europe, has the advantage of specifically identifying the location of the pool or stream where a species was found. More recently, collectors have had the advantage of being able to use a Global Positioning System (GPS), which can easily provide the exact coordinates for any location site, plus or minus 75 ft.
        Or the same fish may be collected from the same site by different people at different times. In such cases, the codes will be different, but the fish may, or may not, be. The general rule here is to not interbreed named strains, since they may turn out to be entirely different strains, populations, or even species.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 1998.                    Return to top of page

Color and Intensity in killifish . . . a discussion
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Color in killifish is always a good topic for animated discussion. Certainly there are enough colorful species among the Cyprinodontidae to keep even the most jaded aquarist interested. But color can vary widely, both among and within species. Especially with the annual killifish, males from the same spawn may vary widely, even when raised together under identical conditions. Such variations in color are normal; however, genetic inheritance is not the only factor affecting color in fish. Factors that may have a direct influence on the intensity of fish colors include diet, stress, and lighting.
        A point to consider is which colors are of concern. Pale shades of the blue colors may be directly influenced by the amount of light the fish receives, since they are the result of guanine crystals formed in the fishes' scales. In contrast, the reds and oranges are carotenoid-based and are directly influenced by diet. In addition, some coloration develops more slowly than others; the red or orange colors tend to take longer. And in some species, only the dominant male in a tank will color up fully, and then sometimes only when triggered by some unknown factor.

Factors Beyond the Fishroom
        Using publications for reference, even those with high quality color plates, can further confuse the issue, since the skills of the photographer and printer are as influential on what is seen as were those of the aquarist. A fish that is truly spectacular may not photograph well; one that is ordinary may result in an excellent image, due to the skill of the photographer. And sometimes both the fish itself and the resulting photograph are stunning.
        "I have heard people scoff at the picture of a BIT on the back cover of Hellner's book," says Oleg Kiselev, "saying that colors like that did not exist in real life. But I have a tank of BIT that look every bit as good and as brightly colored and as spectacularly finned. I find that the BIT look their best when they're startled by the lights suddenly being turned on about an hour after the main lights in the fishroom are shut off," Oleg Kiselev adds. "They don't know quite what's going on, so they flare up the fins and turn on the colors."
        From time to time, variants will appear within the hobby, a fish or a strain different from the usual, or a color morph, such as the Gold and Red/Orange AUS and the Gold LIN. Other variants appear, as well. In May of 1997 Monty Lehman noted that he had a pair of A. gardneri Akure in which the male "has the best greenish body color that I have seen in many, many years." The glowing green A. gardneri do exist, confirms Sandy Binder, "or did at one time. I saw ... [some] that were a glowing green. It was remarkable." Richard Sexton reported that in 1989 Dennis Haggerty had sent him some Akure from Germany that were more purple than blue, with wide flaring caudals and extraordinary coloration.

Effects from Lighting
        More commonly, the colors perceived in killifish are affected by lighting. Many fish will "bleach out" when maintained in environments that are too bright, from lack of cover or from pale backgrounds. Yet in nature many fish sport for more intense colors than those shown by even the best aquarium fish, and may endure far brighter conditions than are ever seen in a fishroom.
        Many aquarists have seen their fish "glow" more than most illustrations indicate, most usually when the afternoon sunlight strikes them. The quality and intensity of this reflected color cannot be compared to the colors seen under artificial lighting systems.
        The overall color of the Epiplatys species seem to directly relate to the amount of sunlight they receive. With only a few hours of sunlight a day their colors are very intense, notes one breeder. Remove the sunlight for a month and their colors fade. "They really need sunlight to bring it [the colors] out," adds Jay Exner. The blue highlights on E. dageti Monroviae are particularly noticable; "the males' blue eyes stand out in any lighting, just like the females' yellow eyes."
        Jorgen Scheel, referring to Cynopoecilus ladigesi and discussing "metallic" colors, noted that males raised in tanks with strong light developed "more metallic brilliance than males that were raised in dark tanks. In the dark tanks the development of pigments on the sides of the males is more intensive than in light tanks." This appears to be true for all rivuline males.
        As Karl Johnson has pointed out, under the artificial conditions of the fishroom proper substrate and backing color can be useful in helping fish show their best. A tank well filled with plants and with a dark bottom, from dark paint, dark gravel, or a layer of peat, will usually prove beneficial. Trace elements in the peat also seem to mute the panic response in fish.
Since the color red is carotenoid-based, including more carotene containing foods in the diet can prove of benefit: color enhancing dry foods, bloodworms, or daphnia or brine shrimp supplemented prior to use. Although long regarded as an excellent substitute, frozen brine shrimp may be less effective, due to nutritional loss during the freezing/thawing process.

The Effects of Stress
        Fish also tend to "pale out" when frightened or stressed. Those that are used to activity near their tanks and associate a human with being fed tend to be less frightened and to recover their normal colors more quickly when startled.
        Whether destined for a sale or a show, or just for moving down the street, catching and transporting fish causes stress. A few precautions can ease its effects.
        Don't feed them for 24 hours prior to shipping, to reduce potential waste. Net the fish as quietly as possible, and transfer them to shipping bags using a container so they never actually leave the water. If they will be subject to frequent inspection and handling, try adding "cover" in the form of a strand or two of yarn or java moss, or a layer of newsprint on one side of the shipping bag, between the inner and outer layers.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, April 1998                    Return to top of page

      Every aquarist who does regular partial water changes (and we all should) is faced with the question of how best to condition water for aquarium use.
      Many aquarists simply add a dechlorinating agent to their tap water, then allow it to sit for a while before use. Others have other methods.
      "In [our water storage container] we keep a bag of boiled peat and a Tetra pond filter," report Al and Lana Anderson. "We add two handfuls of salt per 50 gallons of water and this system works fine for us. For Nothos we use water from our well, that has been seasoned in our African system."        "I have a reservoir (a 20 gallon plastic drum) that I fill with a hose from the faucet, add salt and dechlorinate, aerate overnight and then siphon down to the tanks," says Lee Harper.

– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, October 1999                    Return to top of page

Abstract: Crossbreeding experiments with Epiplatys sexfasciatus

Etzel, V. Staatl. Veterinaeruntersuchungsamt Fische und Fischwaren, Hamburg-Amerika-St. 6, D-27472 Cuxhaven, FRG. Z. FISCHKD., vol. 3, no. 1., pp. 91-106, 1995.

The relationships between ten populations of the killifish Epiplatys sexfasciatus were examined by crossbreeding experiments. The populations between Togo and Gabon appear to be closely related, but cannot be crossed freely. Differences in morphology and color between the populations and the results of the crossbreeding experiments allow the following conclusion: The three subspecies of Epiplatys sexfasciatus are elevated to species rank with the species E. togolensis, E. sexfasciatus and E. infrafasciatus. The latter species is subdivided into E. infrafasciatus infrafasciatus, E. infrafasciatus rathkei and E. infrafasciatus baroi. These populations have different colors and occur in distinct regions. The results and the new classification seem to agree with the thesis of distribution of major and minor centers of endemism for African forest mammals. Thus, Cameroon may be a center of endemism for fishes of the Epiplatys sexfasciatus group.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 1997                    Return to top of page

Abstract: Ecology, food habits and spatial interactions 
of Orinoco basin annual killifish

Nico, LG; Thomerson, J.E.; Dept. Zoology, 223 Bertram Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611 ACTA BIOL. VENEZ., vol. 12, no. 3-4, pp. 106-120, 1989

For those who are interested in more information on the habits and habitat of South American annual fish:

Sytopic associations among the six known Orinoco basin annual killifish were studied in four temporary pools in Portuguesa state, Venezuela. The species differe in adult size, body form and spatial distribution within the pools. Syntopic associations are among various combinations of a surface dwelling species, either Pterolebias hoignei or P. zonatus : and edge species Rachovia maculipinnis ; and midwater species, either Terranatos dolichopterus or Austrofundulus transilis or both. All species feed on insects and small crustaceans and ther is considerable diet overlap. The two surface species specialize somewhat on allochthonous insects; R. maculipinnis is a generalist; T. dolichopterus specializes on small crustaceans, and A. transilis preys heavily on both small crustaceans and aquatic insects. Pools are invaded by nonannual species, mainly characoids, during the rainy season. Annual species disappear while pools are well filled and food seems abundant. It was concluded that competition or predation by nonannual fishes is a major factor in eliminating adult annual fishes from these pools.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter - November 1996                    Return to top of page

Feeding Habits Studied

        The effects of the interaction of four fish species was studied in regard to their development and life history. The fishes were Fundulus heteroclitis, Cyprinodon variegatus, Lucania parva, and Menidida beryllina. The four species represented four types of feeding: C. variegatus, a herbivore; M. beryllina, a plankton feeder; L. parva, a small primary and secondary carnivore restricted to areas of dense vegetation; and F. heteroclitis, a moderate sized carnivore that feeds in a variety of habitats.
           The findings were that C. variegatus was relatively immune from the competitive effects of the presence of the other fish species. In contrast, M. beryllina was negatively affected in growth and survival by the presence of the other species. C. variegatus has the unique ability to switch back and forth between herbivory and carnivory, based on food availability. This unusual capability is believed to be the reason that the species was the one that was least affected by the presence of the other species.
        Hobbyists may wish to consider this and similar research when setting up a community tank. A mix of species with different feeding habits may help to reduce the odds of deleterious competition, as will the inclusion of omnivores.

Source:  Tropical Fish Hobbyist, July 1996, p. 8; reprinted from Journal of Fish Biology.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 1997                    Return to top of page

The Beginning Killikeeper –
A Few Good Starter Fish

        We’ve all been beginners: filled with excitement and enthusiasm, but not knowing just where to start. The killifish hobby is like any other; there is much to learn.
        The first task, of course, is to find a source for the fish, and to find others with like interests who can provide advice and support. Books and the Internet are fine, but visiting one-on-one with other people and seeing their fishroom setups is invaluable.
        One of the first questions for a beginner (once he has gotten past the first hurdles) is "what is a good beginner’s fish?" That’s a tough one, since there is no one species that is an "ideal" beginner’s fish. There are a number of species that are hardier and easier to breed than others, but the exact answer will depend heavily on the person asked, their experiences, and their personal preferences. Keep in mind, too, that individual fish cooperate with you, or they don’t; what one aquarist may call an "easy" fish, another equally experienced aquarist may find impossible to breed, for reasons that cannot be determined. Some of this may have to do with the type of water available. Some species thrive only in very soft water, others will do well in any kind of water, as long as it’s clean. Find out what type of water you have, and factor that into your choice.
        Look at pictures, to determine what fishes appeal to you. Read and talk to killikeepers to find out what conditions those fish need. Find out of any of them might be available. Some fish are "common as dirt," others so rare that they are almost never seen.
        Most killikeepers do agree on a few fish that are consistently hardy, attractive, and relatively foolproof for beginners. Some killikeepers even keep a tank in their fishrooms devoted to just such species. Many a newcomer has gone home from a visit to such a fishroom, or from his first or second club meeting, with a free pair of fish and some plants to help get them started.
        If you’re able to pick "the right beginner fish for your water, life will be a lot simpler," says Wright Huntley. However, here are a few recommendations.
                Aphyosemion striatum, A. scheeli, A. bivittatum
                Aplochielus linneatus, A. panchax
                Cynolebias whitei
                Epiplatys dageti, E. bifasciatus, E. fasciolatus group
                Fundulopanchax sjoestedti; F. gardneri group
                Nothobrancius guentheri, N. foerschi, N. patrizii
                Pachypanchax omolonotus
                Rivulus mageleae, R. cylindraceus
      There are, of course, hundreds more species of killifish, many of which may be quite suitable for beginners. For further suggestions, ask fellow members of your aquarium society or killifish club.
And remember, like you, they once were beginners too, with lots of hopes and lots of questions.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 1999                    Return to top of page

Starting 'em out ...
A Few Tips on Raising Fry
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        As amateur aquarists, we keep our tanks clean, our fish healthy, and often breed and raise them. But the route from egg to adult fish is a perilous one, filled with potential problems. Many of us find that raising fry is a skill we need to work on.
        "The size of the adult fish is determined in the first few days of a fish's life," says Ralph Taylor. "We as hobbyists need to do a much better job at getting very small fish off to a good start." Many fry require infusoria or plankton as a first food; microworms and brine shrimp nauplii are often too large. "If I can get [fry] through the first few days until they are large enough to take brine," Ralph says, "I can usually keep the survivors through to adulthood."
        "I routinely feed paramecium to my fry (essentially all Nothos)," says Barry Cooper, "but I find it hard to tell whether they eat them." Vinegar eels, he says, "are a fantastic early food." Barry drains measures of vinegar eel culture through 10 micron nylon mesh, which results in "swarms of eels forming little aggregates." These are rinsed with water, placed in a glass, and "squirts" fed to the fry. The eels remain suspended in the water, and can live at least 24 hours; "continuous food, less pollution risk," says Barry.
        "Do frequent water changes," recommends Eric Lund, who has raised numerous species, but now specializes in annuals. "The more frequent the better. At high fry densities twice weekly changes of 25-30% of the water work for me." He adds that he finds fry at the 1/2" size to be problematic, since they are too small to eat many foods, yet require a LOT of food to fill up. He recommends varying the diet; "there's little doubt that a varied diet will increase growth rates."
        Eric also finds that ramshorn snails are very good at cleaning up any uneaten dead shrimp, and that fry tanks with snails and java moss have fewer problems than those containing only water and fry.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, July 1998                    Return to top of page

A Fish Out of Water ...
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        A number of different aquarists who have kept Rivulus species have noticed that many of these fish seem to actually like being out of the water - even when there is no apparent reason for them to be.
        Some Rivulus species (and some tetras, as well, particularly Copeina arnoldi) are known to spawn out of the water. In the aquarium, this spawning behavior results in placement of the eggs on the aquarium glass or some equivalent surface above the water line.
        Collectors have noted that in the wild rivulins usually inhabit the shallow fringes of pools, and have often observed the fish lying in the wet leaves or mud above the water line. Whether this is a predatory or a defensive technique is unknown, but conjecture indicates that it may be a hunting adaptation. [Ed. note: Since many rivulins live in small, low oxygen content pools, could this behavior also provide a source of additional oxygen, with the fish "respirating" through their skin, like amphibians?]
        Jaap Vlaming, in "Killie Nieuws", wrote that in Cameroon he observed A. cameronense jumping out of the water and onto the riverbanks, and A. splendopleure jumping onto floating pieces of wood, both for no apparent reasons. When he entered the water near the A. cameronense, they all jumped back into the water - all together, and with none jumping in the wrong direction. This would seem to indicate that they do this often, and that their eyesight is very good both in and out of the water.
        Other aquarists have observed similar behavior in captive fishes. Cal Him says that he has observed a Pterolebias xiphophorous that stuck to the side of an aquarium for a period of up to 10 minutes. When the fish saw him, it jumped back in, and seemed to suffer no ill effects. Another aquarist had some R. milesi in a tank with an exposed rock, where he often found them lying quietly.
        Working with this apparent preference, Glen Collier drapes a long spawning mop across the top of a 2" square of styrofoam, which he then floats in the breeding tank for Rivulus deltaphilus and other rivulins he keeps. Regularly, he finds eggs in the part of the mop above the water line, and sometimes one or both of the spawning fish lying there as well.
        Little direct study has been done on this phenomenon of spawning behavior, but it can be assumed that by placing their eggs in the moist moss or algae at the water's edge, as do some of the rain forest frogs, fish that spawn in this manner assure their eggs of greater oxygen supplies, adequate moisture, and lower levels of predation during development.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 1997                    Return to top of page

A Genetic Study on Gold AUS

        Inheritance of color (and other) characteristics is a subject of importance to anyone who breeds living things, since all offspring inherit their unique characteristics from their parent stock. It is the mixing of genetic material (genes) from the parents that gives each individual its own appearance, capabilities, and personality.
        A recent article in the Journal of Heredity (a publication of the American Genetic Association) may be of interest to killikeepers, since its subject is Aphyosemion australe Orange. For those who wish to read the original article, see Frankel, J.S., 1997. "Inheritance of body coloration in the lyretail toothcarp (Aphyosemion australe Cyprinodontidae). J. Hered. 88(5): 4445-446.
        In essence, Frankel shows that inheritance of the orange body color is determined by two independently non sex-linked genes, recessively expressed. Homozygotes (genotype aabb) are orange. So are fish with genotypes aaB_ and A_bb. All other genotypes (A_B_) are brown (the "wild" type). Thus, one could make double heterozygotes by crossing pure breeding browns (genotype AABB) with pure breeding oranges (aabb) and then intercrossing the heterozygotes to obtain a ratio of 9 brown to 7 orange (roughly 44% orange), a more favorable result than the 3:1 ratio of brown to orange which would occur if the orange trait was controlled by a single recessive gene (such as albinism in many species). Backcrossing the F1 crosses to orange would yield a 3:1 ratio of orange to brown, even more favorable.
        Among killifish breeders, it has long been known that the orange color trait was recessive, and that by breeding both brown and orange offspring back to their parents, a population of orange colored AUS could be established. This is how the original color strain was developed.
        Many of the existing strains of orange AUS are strong and robust, as are many of the original brown strains. However, in some cases the strains have deteriorated, with decreasing fertility rates and increasing breeding and hatching failures occurring. The time-honored way of dealing with such inbreeding depression is to cross back into the authentic wild stock and then to intercross the F1 progeny, or to backcross to the parents. Frankel's article shows that this could be practical with orange AUS, yielding a good proportion of orange progeny.
        However, any such crosses should be done with stock collected at the same location as the original stock, or as close to its original locale ("Cape Lopez" as possible. Many of the Aphyosemion species are comprised of populations that appear very similar, but are genetically quite different. As killi breeders are very much aware, crossing the "wrong" populations could result in the production of actual hybrids, and sterile offspring.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, February 1998                    Return to top of page

Good Water? Good Question
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Good Water. Every aquarist knows what it is. Or do we?
        Good water is a cornerstone of successful fishkeeping, along with adequate and appropriate food, proper lighting, the correct temperatures, and surroundings in which the fish feel comfortable. Only when all these conditions are met will the fish in our care prosper, show their best colors, and freely breed.
        The concept of "good water" seems self explanatory, except that "good water" can vary considerably. Usually, good water is clear, clean, free of excessive extraneous matter and/or contaminants, and neither excessively hard nor soft, acid or base. Test kits are available that allow us to measure the water's pH and Hardness, and to track the levels of ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite, byproducts of the nitrogen cycle and indicative of overall aquarium health.
        But good water, the basis of this system, is a variable commodity. Local water supplies are not all the same, and not all fish require the same types of water. Local water conditions are dependent on the source, the treatments received (if any), the additives that may have been included during treatment to soften, stabilize and purify, and the pipes and conduits through which they run. Unfortunately, treated water that is safe for human use may result in the death of our fish, hence those products which neutralize chlorine and chloramine, among other chemicals, in water for aquarium use.
        Well water can cover the full range from extremely soft to extremely hard, depending on the local aquifer.
        The author's local water, which comes from a treated municipal source, measures pH 7.0 from the tap and a comfortable medium hardness (about 180 ppm). Water of these parameters has proven suitable for most fish except the most discerning hard- or softwater species. But what comes out of your tap is not necessarily what your fish must live in. The natural cycles of the closed aquarium system eventually will result in a drop in pH, and possibly an increase in hardness.
        If your local water conditions are too extreme, the water can be mixed or treated to achieve the desired parameters. The use of clean collected rainwater or of reverse osmosis water can provide a fairly easy way to soften aquarium water. Resin-containing softening "pillows" or bags of boiled peat can be added to the filter to adjust pH, or the aquarist can make "peat water" by soaking peat in an aerated container, and then adding the resulting dark colored liquid to the aquarium.
        Most killifish are adaptable enough to be content with "ordinary" conditions; others require water purity that is only achieved by vigorous efforts. Whichever type you keep, remember that those partial water changes go a long way toward keeping your fish healthy and productive.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1998                    Return to top of page

Harmful Water

        In the wild, fishes occupy a variety of niches, from high-acid jungle pools to extremely hard lake waters, from still sloughs filled with rotting vegetation to clear rushing mountain streams. In aquaria, fish are often forced to endure whatever water conditions come from the local tap.
        A number of substances that are found in quantity in water from the tap are found, if at all, in only minute quantities in the wild. Many of these are highly toxic to fish and plants, including heavy metals such as cobalt, nickel, mercury, chromium, copper, zinc and lead.
        Adding to this concern in some areas is the use of copper and lead pipes. Although some of the danger is reduced in older systems due to chalk deposits, in newer systems more than 2 mg/l of copper may be dissolved in water that has stood in the pipes for sevearl hours. Quantities of 0.5 mg/l of copper have proven fatal to many aquarium fisih. Hot water piping and copper boilers are of particular concern, since copper solubility is dependent on heat. Also, the softer the water, the greater the toxicity. Not only the fish are affected by high copper levels; the entire aquatic eco-system is harmed.
        Should you be concerned about the possible toxicity of your water, tests are available to measure the level of various metals, and products have been developed to neutralize their effect in the aquarium.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, Sept/Oct. 1998                    Return to top of page

How Many Are Too Many?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

Identification in the Field

        In a communication on the Killiefish Mailing List (e-mail) in June of 1997, reporting on his trip to Tanzania last year, Barry Cooper commented, "One of the new fish ... is of the red-tailed Notho class, but the other will remind you of something you’ve never seen before." He goes on to describe the male collected then adds, "The wild females have color to the point that I found it confusing in the field as to whether I had caught juvenile males or females."
        This immediately prompted the question, "How do you tell in the field, under these conditions, whether [fish] are male or female? How do you even realize in the first place that it is females with color, since that is not very normal?"

A Question of Gender
        "After collecting several fish," Barry Cooper replied, "you begin to realize that there are two consistent forms - one is the brightly colored male, and the other, the less brightly colored form ... you decide must be the female. Having an expert like Ruud Wildekamp with you helps - he can look at other features such as fin shape, etc."
        Nothos display considerable sexual dimorphism, so distinguishing males from females in the field or in the fishroom is generally not a problem. However, "In the case of the new species .. . the color pattern on the body of the female is quite similar to that on the body of the juvenile male, and this can lead to some initial confusion. However, closer inspection [showed] a ready distinction" on the basis of the less well developed finnage of the females, the more pointed shape of the anal fin, and the general lack of a strong patterning on the fins. "Even immature males showed some black bars in the anal, dorsal and caudal fins."
        In some situations, Barry noted, specific water conditions made differentiation between male and female difficult. Where water had a particularly milky, turbid quality, the males might be pale and almost devoid of color. "However, the rounded shape of the anal fin, compared with the more pointed shape of the anal fin of the female, provides the necessary clues. In all cases, the fish regained normal color when placed in clear water in the aquarium."

What Happens When Similar Species Are Collected at a Single Site?
        However, the problem of sexual identification may pale in comparison to matching up the right males with the right females when several species are collected at a single locality. "In a number of the localities" [where we collected] Brian Watters said, "there were as many as four different Notho species co-existing in the pool. However, even under such circumstances, identifying the correct females for the different males is generally not a problem, although it does require a degree of familiarity with known Notho species. Remember, the fish also have to be able to tell the difference, and while those differences may be subtle, they are always there. To the experienced (human) eye the differences ... are always identifiable."
        "I just want to emphasize that I, as a beginner collector, at first had difficulty being sure that the females of this new species were, in fact, just that," says Barry. "I can’t emphasize enough how much help it was to be in the company of experienced people like Ruud Wildekamp and Brian Watters. Even so, after collecting several fish you start to realize that there is a pattern." 
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 1999                     Return to top of page

Hybrids:  Intriguing, but Undesirable

        "Hybrids in killifish are intriguing," admits Harry Specht. On the whole, however, hybrids are undesirable except for research or purely "hobby" purposes, where the fish are distributed in (at most) a very limited manner.
        It is well known that many killifish will interbreed if given the opportunity; some may even produce beautiful (and fertile) offspring. However, the presence of hybrids, viable or not, in the hobby blurs the lines that demarcate species, further confusing an issue already sufficiently confusing. Years ago, Col. Scheel did a great deal of hybridizing in an attempt to determine the relationships of various species, thus proving (and disproving) a number of disputed links in killifish geneology then destroyed the fish, being fearful that these hybrids would be distributed in the hobby to "pollute" the existing strains.
        "His fears were well grounded," Harry maintains. "The same concerns exist today, and we must continue to strive to prevent the same thing from happening."
        That does not mean that there are not those creating hybrids, either from individual curiosity, or for scientific purposes. The American Killifish Association maintains a Hybrid Committee, whose purpose is to keep track of such hybrid stock, and which invites anyone to list or register the hybrids they have produced. It is the AKA's stated position, however, that hybrids should not be distributed. In fact, hybrids may not be distributed through the AKA's Business Newsletter.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1998                    Return to top of page

If They Can Jump ... They Will!
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Many a killikeeper has learned to his regret that many killifish not only will jump, but even seem to want to jump. They are now firm believers in the rule that "if they can jump out, they will," and its corollary: "even if they can't jump out, they will." Leave a killie tank uncovered and you are almost certain to find dead fish on the floor; leave even a gap for some species, and your chances of having "crispy critters" are high.
        But why do fish jump?
        For defense. In nature, some fish jump as an instinctual evasive maneuver. In aquaria, being startled, whether by sudden movement or abruptly turning on the lights, will often trigger this jumping response.
        For reproduction. Although the behavior has not been specifically observed in killifish, some fish have adapted to laying their eggs out of the water, on the underside of a convenient leaf, or in mud above the waterline.
        To some extent, , the tendency to jump seems to be genus-related. "In my experience with annuals," observes Eric Lund, "jumping capability seems to be pretty much (but not entirely) genus-specific. I tend to keep open-topped tanks with non-jumpers and almost never lose a fish to the floor." In Eric's experience, the non-jumpers include: Nothobranchius, Cynolebias, Terranatos, Fundulopanchax filamentosum and F. walkeri. Jumpers include Fundulopanchax (F. occidentalis is the champ, "Give them a hole and a day and I'll show you a fish chip," says Eric) and Pterolebias.
        "I have had C. bokermanni jump," Oleg Kiselev says, "but otherwise I agree [with Eric Lund's observation]; Cynolebias are not jumpy." However, regarding F. filamentosum and F. walkeri, "in my experience both these species will jump if given a chance. I'd go so far as to say that all Aphyosemion and Fundulopanchax species are jumpers and their tanks should be tightly sealed. The same goes for all Moema, Pterolebias and Rivulus species. They are all jumpers."
        Some of the Rivuluns take the jumping behavior even farther, voluntarily spending considerable periods of time out of the water, lying in wet leaves or mud. In aquaria, they hang from the sides of the tank above the waterline, or from the tank cover. Aquarists have even observed these fish lying on top of floating spawning mops. Eventually, they will flip back into the water.
        "My experience is that killies are more likely to jump if they are new to a tank/fishroom," observes Donald Nute. "Still, I had a large breeding group of A. bitaeniatum for three years in a 30 gallon tank, and every time I left the tank open for half an hour I would find two or three on the floor. One thing seems certain: other things being equal, the likelihood that a killie will jump is directly proportional to its desirability and inversely proportional to the ease of replacing it. In other words, the better you like it and the harder it is to replace, the more likely it is to jump."
        Other factors that can trigger killies to jump include bare tanks, which can lead to nervous fish and high stress levels; fright syndrome; and deteriorating water conditions. To ease stress levels of the fish, try adding more cover in the form of plants or mops; additional security in the form of dark paper or cardboard dividers between adjoining tanks; some gravel or peat on the bottom to hide the glass; or "dither fish" such as guppies or Heterandria formosa. Peat has the added benefit of absorbing excess chemicals from the water, including those produced by panicked fish, thus also easing the effects of fright syndrome. Reducing light levels may help, too.
        Regular water changes, of course, are the answer to poor water conditions, but the addition of carbon or a cube of the new polyfilter to the filtering system can also help.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, Sept/Oct 1998                    Return to top of page

Judging Killifish
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

Just for Fun ...

        Nothing says that keeping killifish has to be boring. Recently Paul Raymond presented a series of questions to the members of the (electronic) killifish mailing list, and received a number of replies to each question, including those given below.

What is the biggest killie? Nothobranchius ocellatus. They will reach up to 10-12 inches in the wild (Bob Morenski). Cynolebias elongatus (reputed to reach 30 cm). Aphyosemion sjoestedti

What is the smallest killie? Fundulosoma thierryi (Bob Morenski). Diapteron species (Alan Smallbone). Foerschicthys flavvipinnis (Richard Sexton). Plesiolebias aruana fry (Cal Hin)

How long can the longest-surviving annual eggs survive?  Two plus years (Bob Morenski). Unknown. I've seen N. guentheri last a year. My guess is two seasons. I'm just assuming that if (in the wild) the rains don't come one year, a few eggs hatch if they come the year after. (Richard Sexton). Cynolebias magnificus - two years and still clear. (Cal Hin). Didn't Scheel report that he kept C. nigripinnis eggs anaerobic for three years before drying the peat (thereby allowing the eggs to start development) and hatching viable fry? (Eric Lund)

What is the most colorful killie?  A good strain of N. rachovii is hard to beat. (Bob Morenski). Hardly an objective answer: N. rachovii? A. ogoense 24/18? (Richard Sexton). C. magnificus, C. fulminantis, C. sp. Shoelzel. (Cal Hin)

What is the most colorful female killie?  Cynolebias zonatus? (Bob Morenski). Maybe N. fuscotaeneatus (Alan Smallbone). Epiplatys annulatus (Richard Sexton)

What is the most violent killie, in terms of others of that species?  N. ocellatus, hands down. In nature, there are never more than 5 or 6 per pool, yet adults lay 30 to 60 eggs per day. Fry have to be separated at birth. They also classify as the worst egg eaters of any annual species. (Bob Morenski). Cynolebias melanotaneia (Richard Sexton). Cynolebias prognathus (Cal Hin). I think you've forgotten the meanest, nastiest spud on the face of the planet, Fundulopanchax gulare. They have to be raised in the dark. If they have light, they bet on each other until the light goes off. A fried and I saved only two (a male and a female) from a spawn of 150. It's no wonder they have to be prolific. (Jim Robinson).
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, Sept/Oct 1998                    Return to top of page

Old Killifish . . .
Just How Long Do They Live?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Among the many fish species available to aquarists, it is generally accepted as fact that many other species are longer lived than most of the killifish. This is certainly true; but just how long do killifish actually live?
        In the wild, most annuals manage a year at most, if only because their habitat dries up. The fact that the fish has adapted to the (usually) annual droughts by fast growth, and by producing eggs that undergo a sometimes extended estavation (diapause) is what has enabled many species to survive where other fish could not.
        However, not all "annuals" are true annuals. In the case of some Nothobranchius, for example, fluctuating water levels may allow for the successful hatching of diapause eggs deposited at various times and at various levels within the pool. This produces coexisting fry and adults of varying ages, which may allow older adults to survive longer if the pool fails to dry up completely.
        Various studies have been conducted on the life span of annual killifish. Studies with Nothobranchius guentheri showed an average lifespan of about 14 months at 22C (72F). Studies with Cynolebias adolffi showed an average lifespan of 11.5 months at 22C (72F); and at 16C (61F) half of the fish were still alive at 19 months. Some keepers of Nothos have indicated that if you maintain them at cooler temperatures, some individuals may live up to two years or more.
        "I've had a Cynolebias minimus go three years," says Steve Halbasch. In March of 1997 he noted "I also have had the same trio of Aplyochelius katangae since 1991 and I just picked a dozen eggs yesterday." Rosario La Corte supposedly had a C. lacortei that was 18 months old and successfully breeding. Oleg Kiselev reported having a three year old C. melanotaenia aff. female, a four year old Fundulopanchax gardneri male still fertilizing eggs and producing viable fry, and an Ap. johnstoni that was over four years old.
        Basically, most killifish live short lives in the wild due to high temperatures, failing habitat (rapidly drying ponds), and heavy predation rates. In the fishroom, most of these factors can be controlled.
        Perhaps the idea of an old Notho or a senior citizen Cynolebias isn't such a contradiction in terms after all.
-- GCKA Newsletter, October 1997                    Return to top of page

Beginners' Corner
Keepin' Killies - A Primer

        Beginners often ask, "what does it take to keep killies?"
        Nothing more than it takes to successfully keep any of the more common tropical fish.
        Although there are some species among the killifish that are very difficult to keep and breed, there are just as many that are fairly simple to maintain. All, however require the same basics as any other fish: clean water, a suitable covered container, and food. Depending on the species of killifish you wish to keep and the conditions they prefer, the following may or may not be required: a suitable substrate; lighting; filtration or aeration; and plants or other appropriate cover.

Water
        Like all other fish, killifish require good water. In most cases, well aged dechlorinated tap water works just fine. Many aquarists swear by such commercial products as Stress Coat for neutralizing the chemicals found in municipal water supplies. For some species, soft water is a prerequisite. This can often be provided by mixing clean rainwater or reverse osmosis (RO) water with conditioned tap water.

Containers and Covers
        Accommodations for adult killies can range in size from small to very large, depending on the size and the number of fish. Many killikeepers keep their fish in 5, 10 or 20 gallon tanks, but killifish have been successfully bred, raised and maintained in goldfish bowls, tupperware containers, plastic dishpans, plastic storage boxes, glass pickle jars, and various other containers made of suitable materials. Be certain to cover your killifish container. Covers help to reduce temperature fluctuations and evaporation. More importantly, many killifish are jumpers. Even the best breeders have been dismayed to walk into their fishrooms and find that prized killies have become "crispy critters" on the floor.

Foods
        Unless you’re trying to breed your killies or have a particularly finicky or delicate species, most require no special diets. They prefer and will do better with a liberal assortment of live foods, but will do quite well on the flake and frozen foods available in most aquarium stores. If you’re trying to breed your fish, the greater the variety of food, and the higher the percentage of live or frozen food, the better.

Substrate
        Whether you have gravel on the bottom of your killie tank or not is a matter of personal choice and whether or not you want to include rooted plants, which use the gravel as an anchor. In addition, many killies prefer the calming effect of having a "bottom" to their environment, and show their colors better with a dark substrate. For fry tanks, bare bottom tanks are often preferred, since they are easier to keep clean. If the species you’re keeping prefers soft water, you may want to use a thin layer of peat moss on the bottom of the tank, which will also help to buffer the water and keep it soft.

Filtration and Aeration
        Most but not all killifish tanks include some type of aeration or filtration. Most commonly seen are airstones to keep the water in circulation, or simple foam filters, which provide both good mechanical and biological filtration. Outside filters and undergravel filters are also successfully utilized.

Lighting and Plants
        Light levels in killie tanks are dependent on the species of fish you wish to keep and the live plants you may choose. Some fish- and some plants- do well under subdued light conditions, while others require high light levels to do well. By matching the requirements of the fish and those of the plants, successful killie tanks can be maintained under most light conditions.

Breeding
        There is no doubt that some species of killies truly are difficult to breed, and that few killies can be raised in large numbers with minimal effort, as many of the commercially important species can. However, breeding killifish can range from the ridiculously easy to the extremely difficult, depending on the species and its requirements, local water conditions, and the attention paid to detail in your fishroom. Some of the Fundulopanchax and Aphyosemion species will happily surprise their owners with unexpected fry in their tanks. Others, such as some of the Cynolebias and Nothobranchius species, require particular spawning media and long dry storage of their eggs before fry can be produced. Few commercial fish breeders are willing to devote the time, space and effort required to meet the special needs of killifish breeding. Fanciers can, and often do.

Buying and Selling
        The commercial market for killifish is limited, since few aquatic dealers know much about them. Some local aquarium shops do seek suppliers, and some killikeepers help support their hobby by selling to them. However, most killifish are sold to those within the hobby, either through the Fish and Egg Listings in the American Killifish Association’s Business Newsletter, or at club meetings and shows. One advantage held by killifish over many other fish species is that their eggs can be easily stored and shipped, making both local and long-distance sales easy. If you’re looking to buy, joining the AKA and/or your local killifish club is the most effective way to locate and acquire stock.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, September 1997                    Return to top of page

Keeping Track ...

        At one time of another, all of us have "forgotten" what is located where.
        When the number of species in our fishrooms rise above a critical level, remembering everything can become a major headache, and having the correct species names and collection sites for all the fish we keep is important.
        But how to keep track of it all?

Keep a Master List
        Keeping a master list provides you with a single resource for information about the fish you have. List incoming stock by species, using the full species information: family name, species name, collection site, and any other pertinent information (color, variety, etc.) Add the date of acquisition, and also log in the source where you acquired the fish, the breeder, and the price, if you like.

Mark Your Tanks
        If you have numerous species, or several varieties of the same species, this can be a lifesaver, helping to prevent inadvertent crossing of lines or hybridizing. There are several ways to mark tanks. Peel off labels, either plastic, from a labelmaker, or peel off paper, typewritten or handwritten, are unobtrusive and clearly read. Just stick them on the tank, and move as required.
        Alternatively, you can use a "Sharpie" or a similar marker and write the information directly on the tank. This is especially useful on plastic tanks. But be sure to test the marker first, and make certain that the ink is removable. Some marker solvents will quickly damage acrylic. The "Sharpie" can be removed from plastic with rubbing alcohol, but will "set" over time. For old marks, remove with "goop' hand-cleaning compound, wash, then wipe with alcohol. Instead of marking directly on the tank, you might want to make a removable "clip" of plastic that hangs on the rim of the tank. The information can then be written on this, and the marker moved as required.

Mark Your Plastic Bags
        Ball-point pen works well here, writing on stick-on labels. Be careful using marking pens directly on the plastic, however, since the many of the solvents will permeate the plastic, possibly damaging the eggs or fish contained inside the bag.

Keep a File of Your Eggs in Storage
        A simple list may work effectively, but for larger numbers of eggs in storage, other methods may be required. Whether you choose to store your eggs in boxes on the top shelf of your fishroom, or in a dark closet, being able to find the eggs you want when hatching time comes is important. One possibility is to make a 3x5 card for each bag of eggs, then file the card by the month in which hatching is due. Or divide a cardboard box into sections, with the eggs sorted by month of hatch. A third idea is to hang the bags from a wire by clothespins or photo clips, sorted by month.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter - December 1996                    Return to top of page

Keeping Track of pH
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Some of the most important factors leading to success in keeping and breeding fish are the water parameters. We keep track of temperature, hardness, pH, and in some cases, salinity, attempting to provide our charges with conditions favorable to continuing good health and (hopefully) breeding vigor. All of these factors are important; in this article we will discuss pH, and how to monitor it in the aquarium.
        There are several types of devices available that measure pH. The simplest is probably litmus paper test strips, but you can also buy liquid test kits and pH meters.
        "Most of us … don’t know exactly what pH is, much less what a buffer is, or a molar, or a normal solution," observes Charles Harrison.
        But this is not necessarily a problem.
        Perhaps the least expensive measure of pH is the condition of the plants in your tanks. "Fish and plants, especially the snails, can tell the difference when pH drops too low," says Lee Harper. "My most useful indicator … is the condition of sensitive plants like Riccia. Java moss will live in very acid water. Riccia will turn yellow [in low pH conditions] before the fish show distress."
        "Changes in the plants are almost the first indication I see [of massive pH changes]," agrees Frank Louden. "When my plants turn a pale green the water has usually gone far too acid for a pH test kit. When that happens, it doesn’t matter if a test meter is used, because it’s time to change the water!"
        "The septic tank we call an aquarium should never need to have its pH measured," contends Charles Harrison. "You always change the water when the plants begin to yellow? How long have they taken to show a response to a pH drop? The fish don’t seem to mind? The tropics where most of our fish are from measure the annual rainfall in meters, not inches. It is a constant change renewing fresh water, rainwater, or close to it. The buffering is with organic acids and salts… Basically the aquarist and killie keeper needs to set up a regular water change habit and stick to it. Flush the commode often."
        Most city water reaches homes with a pH of 7 to 11. In the Dayton, Ohio, area, water from the tap measures 7.0. In this author’s tanks, it drops to 6.0-6.5 after a week or so. Fishkeepers in other areas may face a wide range of basic water conditions, from extremely hard (one fishkeeper refers to his well water as "liquid rock") to extremely soft.
        "The best water to use in your fishroom is the water you have the most of," recommends Charles Harrison. "Try to keep it simple."
        For pH testing, "litmus paper is almost as good as an improperly calibrated pH meter.," says Lee Harper. "The comparison charts for indicator solutions are better than a malfunctioning pH meter."
        Other aquarists prefer to use more sophisticated methods, electronic pH meters. However, inexpensive meters are "unreliable and unstable," says Lee Harper. "The have to be calibrated frequently and don’t last very long. More expensive meters have to be calibrated every time they are turned on to be really accurate, but the drift is less severe than the cheaper ones. When working properly, they do a better job than the indicator solutions, but the degree of accuracy is usually more than is needed.
        "I hardly ever use a pH meter, even though I know how to use one," Lee adds, "because it is more important to get rid of the toxic materials which eventually lead to a pH drop, " before they occur. This means frequent and regular water changes.
        "For the record," says Eric Lund, "I don’t use a pH meter at home, nor do I even have a functional pH kit at the moment. I have too many tanks going to fuss with trying to do anything about the hardness and pH of my water. I use two types of water: straight from the tap with dechlorinator added and dechlorinated water with 1 tbs. NaCl added per gallon. Nothos and species with a history of velvet problems get the salt. … I’m blessed with soft tap water so I can get away without adding R/O for softwater species. I find that the time spent checking pH could be better used changing more water. As a general rule, when I manage to do weekly 40% changes in all my tanks I encounter few problems. The exception is [smaller] containers with fry which need smaller, more frequent changes."
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, July 2000                    Return to top of page

Basic Fishkeeping ...
Killies and other companions

        Many killikeepers (and newcomers to the killifish hobby) ask whether they can keep killifish with other species. The answer is a resounding "yes, but ..."
        Many killifish get along quite well with fish of other species, provided that their basic requirements of water and temperature are the same, and that their sizes and behavior patterns are compatible. Many killi fanciers routinely keep Corydoras, Ancistrus, or Otocinclus catfish with their killifish. Others maintain livebearers in their killifish tanks, and some routinely mix dwarf cichlid with kills.
        Successful killifish community mixes have included tetras, barbs, minnows, glass fish, rasboras, and in some cases, even some of the Cichlidiae. Mixing various male killifish together in a community tank with other fish often works well, as long as no female killifish are involved. Once females are added, displaying and spawning may quickly begin, and aggression become rampant.
        Mixing fry of similar growth rates together to raise can work well, too.
        John Wubbolt says he keeps Apistogrammas and killies together all the time. "Many of my Apisto [tanks] regularly have 3 or 4 of my extra males of Aphyosemion or Fundulopanchax. I used to breed my Ap. cacatuoides in a 10 gallon tank with several [F. gardneri] N’sukka males as a sort of dither fish. I’ve never tried breeding killies in the same tank as an Apisto."
        "I have successfully bred A. bivittatum Funge in a continual setup with Pelvicachromis taeniatus," reports Gary Elson. "I have A. biteniatum Ijebu Ode flourishing with Apistogramma aggasizii, Epiplatys annulatus (extra males) with Dicrossus maculatus, E. togolensis with P. roloffi and E. lamottei with Apisto. njisseni. I often grow out killies that like warmer water ... in my heated Apisto/Dwarf Cichlid tanks.
        "Problems? Certainly. Bottom hugging killies would be doomed. ... It’s surface-oriented killies that I’ve done well with."
        Lee Harper has kept Epiplatys lamottei in a 10 gal. tank with a pair of Apistogramma cacatuoides. "They got along fine until the Apistos started raising a family."
        Other reported successful combinations include: Apistos and Aplocheilus (lineatus, dayi, panchax, and the smaller blocki types), and Epiplatys (spilargyreus, chevalieri, maybe bifasciatus).
        "It is doable, but tricky, to mix species," cautions Wright Huntley. "The way they are introduced (or raised together) helps a lot, as does unisex maintenance. Just be aware that any mixing of killi species is touchy and tricky – not a game for the beginner with a limited supply of fish."
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 2001                     Return to top of page

Lighting for Killifish

        Most killikeepers have at some time observed that the same fish, viewed under different lighting conditions, can appear entirely different. Sunlight from a window can transform a usually dull looking fish into a spectacular one; a fish that looks bland in a show tank can suddenly turn beautiful in a flashlight beam.
        But what is the best lighting for viewing killifish?
        "Many killies get more colorful in subdued light, for some reason," observes Wright Huntley. "I have SJO in my bright plant tank … and they look washed out all the time. Brothers in an overgrown, darker Salvinia-covered tank look brilliant. Survival mechanism? I don’t know."
        Some fish need to be seen in reflected light (from the side) to show their true beauty, particularly iridescence. Some fish even seem to vary in coloration by time of day. Some killifish only develop their best colors when they receive significant daylight over long periods.
        However, by choosing a good light source, and utilizing a few simple techniques, fish color can be enhanced. Dark substrates and backgrounds help, as do plants, by providing more security (comfort) for the fish, and by providing more visual contrast to the viewer. Many fish (killifish in particular) never do become completely comfortable over light-colored substrates. The use of color enhancing foods can also help.
        For best appearance, a combination of ‘sunlight’ and ‘daylight’ tubes seems to work well. Cool white bulbs have too much green, subduing red and blue coloring. Plant and aquarium bulbs may give good color, but you often need a cool white bulb to bring up the brightness, and the greens.
        Incandescent lights show killies off fairly well, but produce a great deal of heat. Compact fluorescents with a tri-phosphor work well too, but do require good ventilation to prolong the life of the ballasts.
--G.C.K.A. Newsletter, July 1999                    Return to top of page

Losing New Fish? A Few Pointers ...

        We've all lost new fish as a result of the stresses of shipping and of aclimating them to their new environments. Lee Harper points out that the factors contributing most to the loss of new fish are sudden changes of osmotic pressure in the water (especially a sudden drop), and the results of sudden fright, when the fish literally may knock themselves out against hard objects.
        Lee suggests implementation of the following procedures, which have proven effective in reducing new fish losses in his fishroom to nearly zero.
        1. Always add salt (one teaspoon per gallon) to the water you plan to use for new fish, to prevent a sudden drop of osmotic pressure, which can severely damage the fish's gills.
        2. Slowly and gradually add this new water to that the fish come in, over the period of at least an hour or so.
        3. Always provide cover and security for the new fish, in the form of plants or hiding places. Java moss is excellent for this purpose, since it both provides security and acts as a soft "cushion" if the fish do erupt into a panicked dash. Keeping the tank partially darkened or the sides and back covered may help, too.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, February 1998                    Return to top of page

Mad Dash to Nowhere
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        It’s called fright syndrome, and we’ve all seen it: for no apparent reason, a fish suddenly begins a mad dash around the tank, bumping into walls and knocking into other objects before subsiding, motionless or quivering, on the bottom of the tank. Not only is this stressful to individual fish, the fright can be communicated to other fish in the tank, and in severe cases can sometimes lead to death.
        What triggers this response? What can we do to prevent it? If it does happen, what can we do to treat it?
        Fright syndrome can be triggered by suddenly turning on bright lights, by sudden movements near the tank (apparent predation) and by environmental stresses such as extremely low pH levels, extremely poor water conditions, or an apparent lack of security for the fish in the form of hiding places or plants.
        A few steps by the aquarist to make fish comfortable and happy can help.
         Add plants to your tanks. Plants provide security in the form of cover and also help to improve overall water quality. Java moss is perhaps the most widely used and most effective plant for killie tanks, growing well in low light levels, removing CO₂ and ammonia, and providing an ideal spawning medium.
         Arrange your lighting system for a gradual start, with a dim light coming on first before the full bright lighting array. This will help prevent the startle response.
         Do regular partial water changes. Some aquarists have noticed that when pH levels drop below 4.9, the incidence of fright syndrome (and subsequent fish deaths) increase.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, April 1999                    Return to top of page

      Jack Heller says that if you’re handy, you can fairly easily make a supply of foam filters for your tanks.

To use:  Attach the airline to an air source. Wet the sponge, inoculate it with dark water from an existing sponge filter, and use.
To clean: rinse in tank water as with any sponge filter.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, October 1999                    Return to top of page

        Ask any group of aquarists their opinions on snails and you will receive a wide–and often emphatic–range of responses. Snails in aquaria can be highly beneficial, and equally problematical. Your opinion is probably influenced by the type of snails, and the kind of tanks you keep.
        "Snails can be a lot of help," says Charles Harrison. "Ramshorn snails help keep hydra and duckweed to a minimum, along with excess fish food." Some aquarists are glad to have them, or pond snails, in their tanks.
        Malaysian Trumpet Snails, however, tend to trigger controversy. They are fairly small creatures, reaching only about 3/4," and have shells that look like tiny cornucopias or ice-cream cones. They are primarily active at night, so you will seldom see them. Considered useful by many, they prefer to burrow in the sand or gravel substrate, stirring it up nicely. They are beloved by plant folk, since they are carnivorous, and leave valuable plants alone unless extremely hungry.
        For those with breeding tanks, egg predation by these snails can be a severe problem. Egg predation occurs either when the snail eats into the egg, releasing the contents, or consumes the entire egg. Most snails will eat eggs if given the chance; Malaysian Trumpet Snails will devour all the eggs they can find and everything else that is meaty and won’t swim out of reach. "Until the chorion firms up, the softest new eggs can be eaten by even small ramshorn snails," points out Wright Huntley. "Pond snails can also eat very fresh eggs. But for real depredation, the … Malaysian Trumpet Snails are the most efficient egg eaters of all. I’ve never found eggs in a tank with Malaysian Trumpet Snails burrowing in the substrate."
        Additionally, if you are using powerheads or power filters, Malaysian snails will eventually get sucked into the impeller assembly and cause damage. "I have seen many of the impellers to filterheads and outside filters ruined by these critters," says Al Anderson.
        Some killikeepers keep Malaysian snails in their fry tanks and shoeboxes, finding that they are nearly indestructible. However, others point out that for indication of water problems, ramshorns are more effective and more desirable. The two species rarely live together, since the Malaysian snails eventually prey on the ramshorns.
        One effective control measure for Malaysian snails is to remove the sand or gravel, scald it thoroughly to destroy the snails, then sift to remove the larger shells. To simply reduce the population, try placing an inverted saucer on the gravel in the evening. In the morning, it should contain a number of snails, which can then be removed and disposed of or relocated.    
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, July 1999                Return to top of page

Moving Fry - One Technique

        If you raise fish, you eventually have to move the fry from one place to another. Catching fry is not always an easy task, especially for those fry that are unusually quick, particularly small, or extremely sensitive to shock due to handling or different water.
        One of the simplest and safest methods for moving such fish has proven to be the siphon technique.\
        First remove any plants or decorations from the container to be emptied. Then, using clear plastic tubing of sufficient size, siphon off the majority of the water. Most fry will stay well clear of the intake tube and the fast moving water, but be certain the discharge goes into a holding container so you can retrieve any fry that get sucked up mistake.
        Now, using the siphon itself, a turkey baster or a large pipette/eyedropper (for fry), or a plastic container and a net (for adults) collect the fish that remain and transfer them to a holding container. For small fish clear plastic 1 lb. food containers work well. Float the container in the new tank and acclimate in the usual manner. You have already, of course, made certain that the water parameters and temperature of the tanks are similar, to minimize potential trauma to the fish.
        The siphon technique may take patience and practice, and it may result in drippage or spillage, but moving fish in water is much better for the fish, and travel through a siphon tube or turkey baster seems to cause few if any ill effects to fry. As fry grow, they seem steadily less likely to suffer damage from handling, and by the time they have reached 1/4" or so, most seem able to manage being gently caught using a net.
-- GCKA Newsletter, August 1998                    Return to top of page

        Turquoise pools, streams and freshwater springs sparkle among the gypsum dunes and dried lake beds of the Chihuahuan Desert in Mexico.
        A mirage? No, it is the Cuatro Ciénegas (Four Mashes) Basin Wildlife Refuge, a roughly 500-square mile site located in north-central Mexico. Decreed a natural refuge by the Mexican government in 1994, Cuatro Ciénegas is The Nature Conservancy’s first land acquisition in Mexico.
        An extreme rarity, Cuatro Ciénegas is one of only two remaining desert spring-fed wetlands in North America. The other is Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge in Nevada, which the Conservancy also helped save.
        Where there is water, so there are fish–in the lakes (lagunas), the pools (pozas) and the canals. Many of the pozas are natural aquariums, containing only a few hundred gallons of water; even the larger lagunas are seldom more than 250 ft. wide or 25 ft. deep. The area’s salt marshes are alive with snakes, turtles, and fish.
        Cuatro Ciénegas has 77 unique native plant and animal species, including the threatened Coahuilan box turtle, grass shrimp and a variety of desert fish, including the threatened Coahuilan (Banded) pupfish, Cyprinodon atrorus, which can withstand conditions of especially high temperatures and salinity, and two varieties of Cichlasoma minckleyi.
        Naturalists have long expressed concern about the future of Cuatro Ciénegas, citing the falling water table (due to the pumping of aquifers for irrigation) and continued mining of the natural gypsum dunes, along with overgrazing and uncontrolled tourism.
        "We still don’t understand the [dune formation] process very well," states Salvador Contreras Banderas, a biologist with the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon (UANL). "In fact, we keep learning about the biology and geology of this region. New species are continually discovered in the valley," even as others are documented as becoming extinct.
        "What we’ve seen is that the water has been over-exploited," Contraras said. "The seasonal rhythms of the marshes are being overridden by human development, and the dunes are steadily being destroyed." Mining has reduced the once 50-foot gypsum dunes to 20 feet. Recently, however, due to extensive efforts by environmentalists and others, mining has been halted.
        Working with local partner DESUVALLE, The Nature Conservancy has protected a 450-acre site called La Poza Azul, so named for the turquoise pools found there. Unfortunately, in previous years the refuge as a whole had not been afforded the conservation protection it needed, but this is changing.
        The Conservancy"s Mexico program, Texas chapter, DESUVALLE and other partners are initiating a number of conservation projects at studying Cuatro Ciénegas, including studies of hydrology, environmental impact studies and the establishment of environmental education programs. At La Poza Azul, conservationists recently created a new visitors center to educate visitors about this true oasis in the desert. 

References:
Aristy, Natalie, "Buying a Mexican Oasis," Nature Conservancy, May/June 1998, p. 28.
Grall, George, "Mexico’s Desert Aquarium," National Geographic Magazine, October 1995, pp. 85-97.
Mader, Ron, "Endangered Treasure: Cuatrocienegas," October 1993, http:www.txinfinet.com/mader/exotravel/border/cienegas1.html.
– GCKA Newsletter, August 1998

Nomenclature and Killifish
By Donna M. Recktenwalt 

               With all the change that occurs in the taxonomy and naming of killifish, one sometimes wonders if it’s all a game between the hobbyists, who use the names and try to keep them accurate; the scientists and researchers, who continually learn more about the interrelationships among the species and thus change the names; and collectors, who assign the codes that apply to the fish they collect.
            Not so.
            "We must remember that classifying and naming fish is simply a systematic, scientific method to better assist us in understanding the world around us," says Bill Vannerson. "It would be prudent for hobbyists and scientists to adhere to the parameters set forth in the wild …. If we have two fish from the same species with different population codes from two separate locations, then it is best to keep them separate." The "arcane" name convention serves this purpose well.
            "Classification schemes are not perfect," echoes Barry Cooper. "One can use morphologic characteristics, chromosomal characteristics, ability to interbreed, or more recently, mitochondrial DNA evidence to examine relationships. The results are not always in agreement. Therefore, whern a classification scheme is suggested, It is a hypothesis. Later investigations might disprove this hypothesis.
            "Killifish occur in discrete populations that often differ from their neighbors in color or other characteristics. Unfortunately, simple inspection does not suffice to determine whether one is dealing with different species," Barry adds. "The uncertainty principle makes it prudent to keep … populations separate in our fishrooms."
            "There is an International Committee for Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)," says Wright Huntley, "that keeps such things [nomenclature and taxonomy] straight for us (and particularly the scientists and researchers). They attempt to assure that a given Latin name describes one, and only one, species and that it is grouped with the correct genus. The ICZN isn’t perfect, but they have … good reasons before they change a name. As hobbyists, we … get the benefit of the knowledge they generate."
            Meanwhile, as hobbyists, what can we do?
            Be diligent in retaining accurate records on the names and location codes of our fish Check spellings and verify location codes when possible Always completely and accurately label fish that are being sold or traded And try to not get too upset when some scientist decides that our favorite fish has just moved to a new genus, or a fish that we had long known by one name is changed to another.
            It happens.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 1999                    Return to top of page

Panic Attacks - A Few Strategies
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        We've all seen it. We turn on the lights in the fishroom unexpectedly, we move too quickly when working near a tank, or we're trying to net a specific fish, and all the fish in the tank suddenly go crazy, darting wildly and often stunning themselves against the glass.
        This disconcerting "fright response" is a natural defense of the fish against predators. While the sudden darting activity confuses a predator, the fish is also releasing chemicals into the water that alert others of its species to the danger. This is why one frightened fish in a tank can set off all the rest. In the artificial environment of an aquarium, this panicky behavior can result in fish dying from shock, or in some species, in numerous individuals jumping out of the tank altogether.
        In general, fish that are comfortable in their environment will rarely panic. Most observed panic behavior occurs when the fish are first introduced to a new environment (as from a planted tank to a bare breeding tank, for example), or when their environment or its social dynamics are changed dramatically, such as with the addition of new fish.
        How best to prevent panic attacks? Make the fish feel more secure. In most species, the more secure the fish feel, the more freely they will move around their environment and the less inclined they will be to panic. The following are a few methods to reduce stress and promote security in your fish.

Provide Cover and Hiding Places
        Bare tanks can cause distress for many fish. Whether rooted or floating, the addition of plants or mops make most fish feel more secure. You can also provide hiding places, in the form of tank decorations such as root wood, small flower pots or similar materials.

Add opaque dividers between tanks, and create a "bottom"
        Sometimes just seeing a possible threat in the next tank makes fish nervous. To prevent this, slide a sheet of dark colored paper or cardboard between the tanks, or tape paper to the sides and/or back of a tank. Some breeders go so far as to paint three sides of their tanks black, as well as the bottom.
        Try adding a thin layer of dark gravel or peat to the bottom of the tank to reduce the reflections and reassure the fish. Usually only a very small quantity is required. An additional benefit of using is the absorption of any "panic" chemicals. This can also be accomplished by using carbon in the filtering system.

Add Dither Fish
        Often the presence of another, quieter species in the tank is all that is required to "settle" nervous fish. Some species that have proven effective are Heterandria formosa, guppies, some of the smaller danios, and similar small peaceful species.
-- GCKA Newsletter, April 1997                    Return to top of page

        Sometimes too many snails can be a problem, even for those who like to keep snails in their killifish tanks.
        However, for elimination of the pests it isn’t always necessary to sterilize the tank, or to resort to strong chemical anti-snail treatments.
        "When I used to breed killies (mostly Aphyosemion australe) casually in planted setups, pulling out the fry from time to time, I used one of two biological control agents to periodically kill down the snail populations," says Bruce Turner. "Those agents are called Gambusia affinis and Fundulus chrysotus."
        You can put some of these small snail-eating fish in with the adult killies, or you can take the killies out of the tank for a few weeks while the snail eaters do their job.
        The system "works very reliably," Bruce says. "But I learned early on to use only male Gambusia, or only one sex of F. chrysotus per tank, or else the control agents would eventually kill or outcompete" the killifish. 
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 1999                                Return to top of page

Pond Maintenance for Spring
Gleaned from an article in the Wet Pets (Dahlonega, Georgia) Spring 2000 newsletter.

        1. Clean your filter every week or two. (Our motto is: Capture and remove solids often!) It should only take you 15 to 45 minutes every week or two to clean your filter. If the debris accumulates in the filter week after week (or in some cases month after month) you might just as well have left the solid waste in the bottom of the pond.
        2. Every week or two change 20-30% of the water. Be sure to dechlorinate your new water. Note: Just adding water to make up for evaporation does not count as a water change! Use the water you drain from your pond for watering your garden. Fish emulsion fertilizer is very expensive and you have a free source. Sometimes in the spring some ponds get foam from the waterfall and the surface tension is very thick. This may be due to protein from feeding the fish before the nitrifying bacteria become active, or the protein may be the result of the Koi or Goldfish spawning a few days earlier. Partial and frequent water changes help. Be careful not to drop the water temperature of the pond by more than 4 degrees.
        3. Replace crushed coral for buffering the pH every 6-12 months, rinsing well before use.
        4. Choose quality over quantity; don’t overstock.
        5. Fertilize the plants monthly, March until September.
        6. Be careful not to overfeed your fish. Prepackage foods if someone else will be feeding during your absence.
        7. Keep food in airtight containers, inside the house and out of the sun. Heat can ruin food in just a day. If you buy large quantities that won't be used in three months, divide the food, seal in plastic bags, and freeze until needed.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 2000                    Return to top of page

Say It! Understand It!
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        You know why it's important to use the correct latin names and collection codes for the fish you keep, especially when buying, selling, or trading them. You've even gotten comfortable recognizing those names in print, and to some extent, when spoken by others. But you haven't yet reached the point where you know what those names mean, or feel comfortable enough to try to use them yourself.
        The scientific naming convention need not be daunting. Scientific names are based on Latin and Greek root words, and although they seem long and unwieldy, most provide either a partial description of the subject, or honor some person. Scientific names are usually printed in italics, with the first part of the name capitalized and the second not, thus Aphyosemion gardneri.
        Given knowledge of some of the Latin and Greek roots and suffixes, we can begin to demystify some of the scientific names and to understand not only what the names are telling us, but how to pronounce them.

Pronunciation and Definitions
        Many scientific names can be adequately pronounced using the general phonetic rule that each syllable is pronounced separately, and the basic rules are fairly simple. In emphasis, the second to the last major syllable is emphasized, for example, Pterophyllum is "tear-o-FILL-um." Usually, the prime vowel of the emphasized syllable has a long sound, thus columnaris is "col-um-NAIR-iss". The letter "y" is often used as a vowel, pronounced as a short "i" (as in "if"); a vowel followed by a double consonant often has a short vowel sound, thus "phylla" is pronounced "fill-a." In Latin, "a" before "t" is pronounced as in "lay"; in Greek, it's pronounced as in "jaw." Thus we have variatus, "var-i-A-tus"; and echinodermata, "eh-kinn-o-derm-ah-ta."
        And don't worry too much about mispronouncing names; as one expert has commented, errors in pronunciation or variations in dialect are hardly critical, as long as the conversants comprehend the subject under discussion.
        Many fish names provide a descriptive verbal shorthand, or provide an indication of the biotope where the species was originally found. Aphyosemion, for instance, means "small fish with a flag," referring to its high-carried dorsal. Bivittatum means "with two stripes;" calliurum, "with a beautiful tail;" coeruleum, "blue;" and filamentosum, "with filaments." Deltaense means "from the delta," where the fish was originally found; cameronense, "from Cameroon;" and australe "from a southern area". If the term was australensis, it would indicate that the species came from Australia ("ense" or "ensis" means "coming from").
        In some cases, the name honors a person. Thus we have the species names innessi, axelroddi, weberi, schioetzi, and whitei, among others. An "i" or "ii"ex tension to the person's proper name indicates that the honoree was a man; if the extension is "a" or "ae," the honoree was female.
        The following lists provide initial guidelines to the pronunciation of some of the more common names, and a basic reference for some of the more commonly seen root words and suffixes

Name / Pronunciation
    Aphyosemion -- Af-e-oh-SEE-mee-ahn.
    Aplocheilichtyhs --  Ah-ploh-kye-LIC-th-iss
    Aplocheilus --  Ah-ploh-KYE-luss
    Bivittatum -- Bigh-vit-TAY-tum
    calliurum -- kal-lee-OOR-um
    coeruleum --  see-ROO-lee-um
    Cynolebias --  Sy-no-LEE-bee-ass
    Cyprinodon --  See-PREE-no-don
    deltaense --  del-tah-EN-see
    Epiplatys --  Ay-pee-PLAH-tiss
    filamentosum --  Fil-ah-men-TOH-sum
    Fundulus -- FUN-doo-luss
    Fundulopanchax --  Fun-doo-loh-PAN-chax
    Nothobranchius -- Noth-oh-BRANK-ee-us
    Plataplochilus -- Plat-ah-ploh-KEE-luss
    Procatopus -- Pro-kah-TOH-puss
    Pterolebias -- TAY-roh-LEE-bee-ass
    Rachovia -- Rah-KOH-vee-ah
    Roloffia -- Roh-LOFF-ee-ah
    Rivulus -- REE-vu-luss

Numbers
    hemi, semi - half
    pent - five
    mono, uni - one
    hexa, sex - six
    di, bi - two
    octo - eight
    tri - three
    deca - ten
    tetra, quadri - four

Descriptions and Markings
    cypri, pulcher - beautiful
    fasciatus - banded
    ichthys - fish
    lineatus - lined
    marmoratus - marbled
    notatus - marked
    ocellatus - with an eye-spot
    stigmata, maculatus - spotted
    variatus - mottled
    variegatus - variable
    vittatus, taeniatus - striped

Size, Shape, Body Description
    acanth - spine
    brevi, brachy - short
    caudo, uro - tail
    cephalo - head
    corpor, soma - body
    derma - skin
    dorsi, noto - back
    gaster - stomach
    -issima, -tatos - "the most"
    labio, chilo - lip
    lepis - scale
    longi - long
    macro - large
    mega - great
    micro - small
    multi, poly - many
    nano - dwarf
    odont - tooth
    ophthalmop - eye
    oto - ear
    pauci, oligo - few
    pector, sterni - breast
    phyllum - leaf-like
    pinni, pinniss, ptero - fins
    plani, platy - flat
    pulcher, call, bell - beautiful
    rostrum, rhino - nose
    stoma - mouth
    ventro - belly

Color
    albi, leuco - white
    argent, argyro - silver
    aur, aurat, chryso - gold
    cerule, cyano - blue 
    flamme, pyrrho - flame
    flav, xantho, galb, lute, thapsino - yellow
    fuse, brunne - brown
    nigri, melan - black
    rose, rhodo - rose
    rubi, rubr, erythro - red 
    viridi, chloro - green 

References:
Nguyen, Thuan. e-mail correspondence, March 17, 1997.
Maurus, Walt. "Pro-nun-see-a-shun," Freshwater and Marine Aquarium, April 1987.
Maurus, Walt. "The Piscatorial Verbiphile," Freshwater and Marine Aquarium, November 1990.
Speice, Paul. Column 'Guppies to Groupers,' "The Art of Talking Fish," Parts 2, 3, and 5. Freshwater and Marine
    Aquarium, April, May, and July 1986.
-- GCKA Newsletter, February 1998                    Return to top of page

Shipping Fish - An Overview
By Donna M. Recktenwalt  

Selecting the Shipper
        Although fish have been shipped using almost every known package shipping service, most amateur aquarists agree that in most cases the best bet is Priority or Express Mail. However, selection of what shipper to use may be defined by the sources that are locally available. Whatever the shipper you use, attention to a few details may increase the chances for success.
        1. Pack carefully, assuming the worst.
        2. Ship early in the week. Shipments that leave from Wednesday through Friday may sit for a day in transit.
        3. Make certain the address is clear and easy to read; if the recipient is in a hurry, write their phone number on the label and mark it for "Call Upon Arrival."
        4. Add a "Live Fish, Keep from Extreme Heat or Cold" label.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 1999                    Return to top of page

Shipping Killies
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

How Best to Ship?
        There are several options for shipping packages of fish or eggs. For most people, the U.S. Postal Service provides prompt, safe shipment of living materials. The box must be dry (no leaks), well taped shut, and clearly addressed. Priority Mail advertises 3-day delivery; for small to moderately sized packages (by weight) this is perhaps the most cost-effective method, ranging from $3.00 to $10.00 or more. However, you cannot insure the shipment, or get official coverage of the box.
        Another option for many people is to ship via FedEx. However, Shane Essary, a killikeeper who happens to be a FedEx employee, has advised hobbyists that FedEx "frowns on shipping fish ... [since] they do not usually fare well in the sorting system." Also, the loss and claim rates for using this method are high.
        Although fish have been shipped using almost every known shipping service, selection of which shipper to use may be defined by the sources that are locally available. Whatever shipper you use, however, attention to a few details may increase the chance for successful delivery.
        1. Pack carefully, assuming the worst.
        2. Ship early in the week. Shipments that depart from Wednesday through Friday may sit for a day in transit.
        3. Make certain the address is clear and easy to read. If the recipient is in a hurry for the package, add his phone number on the label and mark the box for "Call Upon Arrival."
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 1999                    Return to top of page

Shipping Your Fish
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

A few hints for speedy Postal delivery.
        1. If possible, use the red, white, and blue priority mail label, then ask your Postal Employee to add Priority Mail tape. Often they’ll add it without your asking.
        2. Clearly write "Live Plants" or "Biological Materials" in several places on the box. In the summer, add "Please Keep Cool." In the winter, add "Please Keep Warm."
        3. If the recipient is in a hurry for the package, write his/her phone number on the label and mark "Call Upon Arrival."
        4. If you’re worried about safe and/or timely arrival, you can have a package tracked.
        5. Try shipping from a major post office (last digit of the zip code is "0"). Smaller post offices will usually result in delays.
        6. If you use Express Mail, sign the waiver so the package can be left with a neighbor.
        7. Talk to your local postman. It won’t hurt to develop a good rapport, and to alert him (or her) when you’re expecting a shipment.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, July 2000                    Return to top of page

Back to Basics -
Some Good Starter Killies
By Donna M. Recktenwalt    

       "I'm new to killies and have little experience, but killies look great and seem addictive. What species should I start with?"
        We've probably all heard-and asked-that question, or variants of it. As beginners once ourselves, we know the importance of a good answer, and of a good starter fish, one that's tolerant of a beginner's errors and attractive enough to warrant both the interest and the effort. So for the beginners-and the not so beginners-among us, here are a few recommendations for that first "starter" fish.
        "There are many small, hardy killies which can be maintained in small aquaria ... and are gentle and not very cannibalistic," advises Harry Specht. "My choices for consideration are: Aphyosemion australe (either chocolate or gold), A. bivittatum Biafra, or A. geryi Robis 1. I have had fry survive among cover plants (or Java Moss) with all three species and they are beauties."
       Fundulopanchax gardneri is Wright Huntley's recommendation, "without question. A. australe can be somewhat tricky, depending on your source stock. ... F. gardneri can be bred in mops if you take some precautions to keep them from scarfing up all their eggs.... The parents can be kept and spawned in a gang in larger tanks if: a) you don't mind a few nipped fins, and b) you provide enough structure and cover to protect the females."
        If you're after show quality fish, you must breed them one pair at a time. Start with three pairs, if you can, and be sure to swap out the males and females to retain genetic diversity.
        Both A. australe and F. gardneri can be bred in "natural" setups and in mops in tanks as small as 5 gallons. A. gardneri will as readily spawn in peat.
        For beginners interested in the peat spawners, another suggestion is A. filamentosum. These fish require a fairly short 6-8 week incubation period, and have proven fairly tolerant of amateur handling.
        For those who desire to begin with aquaria smaller than 5 gallons and want a fish that is nonaggressive and not too difficult to keep, Richard Sexton proposes the following: Epiplatys dageti Monrovia, E. annulatus, A. elberti, and A. bitaeniatum.
        Whatever species you choose, remember to keep the tanks covered, the water clean and filtered (especially in small tanks), don't forget those fairly frequent regular water changes, and try to feed a variety of foods. With a little care, your piscine charges should prosper.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 1998                    Return to top of page

Some Observations on the Orinoco Basin Habitat
From the electronic Killifish Mailing List, as forwarded by Cal Him
By "Tomas"

        If I may venture a guess, there are really "two modes" of annualism that I observed in Venezuela and to some extent in Guyana.
        First, the Llanos region receives a large amount of rain. The temporary pools fill up with water and annual fish hatch and hopefully start reproducing soon. As water rises in rivers and creeks, it eventually overflows the banks, and non-annual fish invade the annual habitats, effectively decimating the annual fish fauna. only later does the habitat dry up, thus killing the non-annual invaders.
        In the Lake Maracaibo region, as well as some other areas of Venezuela, the climate is a lot drier, and the topography of the region quite different. In these places one sees ponds filling up, fish hatching and then spawning before dying, due to their habitat having desiccated. Occasionally there are flash floods. However, large numbers of the rivers in Maracaibo are more or less temporary, or have very deep channels, so there would appear to be very little chance of invasion of annual habitats by non-annuals. (However, after a flash flood in Quisiro I found a few Cyprinodon and Poecilia in pools normally inhabited by Austrofundulus limnaeus and/or Rachovia hummerlincki. These fish probably came from the mangroves, which are close by.
        In both cases there is a large element of stochasticity associated with the exact timing of events, and one always finds exceptions.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter,  January 1997                    Return to top of page

Snails and Eggs ... Good or Bad?

        Ask any group of killikeepers about snails in their tanks, and you're liable to get different answers from each of them. Some wouldn't raise fish without snails; others swear at them and won't have them under any conditions. Most aquarists fall somewhere between the two extremes.
        Ted Klotz has red ramshorn snails "in my tanks and they don't appear to bother the eggs. When I add food to the tank (brine shrimp, bloodworms) the snails make a bee line for the food. This is the main reason I add them, to eat any uneaten food and dead brine shrimp nauplii."
        Another breeder had a "bloom" of pond snails in a breeding tank for Aphyosemion zygaima. He was prepared to move them to a snail free tank, but noticed that the mops had the usual number of eggs, even when the snail population peaked. When he left the mops (and the snails) alone, the eggs hatched out in the tank without any problems.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsetter, November 1998                    Return to top of page

Snails ... Snails ... Snails ...

        There are snails. And then there are snails! They can be a disaster or a bonus, depending on the type of fish you're keeping, and the type of tank.
        In spawning tanks, snails can cause havoc by eating the eggs. In fry tanks they can perform a valuable housekeeping service, although period thinning may be required to prevent them taking over.
        The Malaysian Trumpet Snail is a tiny (2 cm) nocturnal species with a perfect cone-shaped shell that lives in the substrate. This species can be beneficial in most tanks as it keeps the gravel loose and free of debris.
        Ramshorn Snails are common. They come in various sizes, with the striped Columbian Ramshorn reaching 2 inches. These snails are highly prolific, and have a fondness for plants, although they're not averse to enjoying fish spawn.
        Pond Snails are football shaped and under 2 cm in length. They are easily introduced into a tank on new plants, although they are usually to be avoided, as they can introduce pests. They also happily eat plants.
        Mystery Snails have spiral shaped shells similar in shape to those of pond snails, but they grow consid-erably larger, and come in a variety of colors. These snails generally prefer dead matter to plants.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, October 1996                    Return to top of page

Soft Water/Hard Water
By Donna M. Recktenwalt       

        Water condition and quality are perhaps the most important factors determining whether our fish are healthy and content. Other factors are essential too suitable temperatures, space, proper food, etc. But if the fish are in poor water they won't do well -- period.
        Fish can and do adapt to various water conditions, but most experts have found that the majority of fish (with the obvious exceptions of the Tanganyikan cichlids and some of the Nothobranchius) do best when the water is moderately soft. The usual breakdown given is: 0-50 ppm, soft; 50-100 ppm, medium soft; 100-200 ppm, medium hard; 200-300 ppm, hard; and 300+, very hard.
        In general, very hard water is tough on most fish; preferable is the range from soft to medium hard. Most killifish do quite well in this range, but many killikeepers have found that their local water conditions can be improved by adding softer water to that they get from the tap.
        Water softener water is not readily encouraged for aquarium use, but many aquarists use it without apparent ill effects.
        "I keep, raise, and breed my Aphyosemions in soft water (1/2 tap and 1/2 distilled) and have done this for years," says Al Anderson. "I suppose that since these fishes are reputedly from rainy forests, soft water would be the best. However, the bottom spawners, especially the Notho's, I keep in just plain tap water." To some extent, the changing water quality as their ponds dry up may help trigger spawning in the annual fishes.
        From another point of view: "I feel the 'soft water myth' ... has probably frightened off scads of aquarists.. Basically there are only two fish I know of that actually required soft water, the discus and the neon tetra," says Roger Sieloff. Tetras in general fare better in soft water, and Epiplatys annulatus supposedly do better in it. However, Roger reports that he has kept E. annulatus in hard Indiana water and the fish survived, plus "most of the Aphyosemions I've kept did alright in ordinary unsoftened tap water." Rivulus species are hard water tolerant, in his opinion, and pupfish require hard water, including soda, salt, and perhaps borax.
        Several acceptable methods of "softening" water are available. Among them are the use of distilled water, reverse osmosis water, rainwater, and peat. For individual tanks with appropriate filtration, adding peat, black peat granules, or a softening pillow to the filter compartment can help bring down the pH and the hardness.
        Distilled water is fine for those with limited aquaria, but can become pricey when more than a few small tanks are involved.
        Rainwater can be an inexpensive option, if you have a way to collect it and can be assured of its cleanliness. More than one aquarist positions collecting containers beneath their home's downspouts. In general, allow the rain to run off for a time before collecting, to allow any contaminants to wash away. Then collect the water and store it for use. For small amounts, clean glass or plastic jugs work well; for larger amounts, poly barrels with appropriate plumbing may be in order.
        Reverse osmosis units are a reasonable answer if your needs are for moderate or significant amounts of water. These use membranes to filter out all minerals and contaminants, but for small operations are often too expensive.
        But not all aquarists face the problem of having to soften hard water. Some find that they have to harden soft water. This can be simply accomplished by using limestone in your tank. Limestone, which is often used for Rift Lake cichlids, can be added as pieces for decoration, as pea sized gravel for substrate, or in filter inserts. Other possibilities are to use crushed coral, crushed oyster shell, or dolomite in similar fashion. Dolomite requires occasional replacement or thorough drying to retain its effectiveness. The degree of hardness that the additives make depends on the fineness of the gravel, the pH of the water, and the amount of dissolved CO2. Eventually, any of these rocks will become inactive due to a layer of insoluble CaPO4 which forms on the surface, the result of phosphates in fish food.
-- GCKA Newsletter, November 1997                    Return to top of page

Something's Fishy ...

        A clean-looking fish tank can still harbor unwanted bacteria, notes a report in the New England Journal of Medicine.
        Three months after cutting himself while cleaning a fish tank, a California man consulted a dermatologist about wartlike plaques on hisinjured finger and swollen nodules on that arm. The diagnosis: fish-tank granuloma, caused by the waterborne Mycobacteriumm marinum. It took a six-week dose of antibiotics to clear up the infection. Although the bacteria aren't known to cause problems unless you have broken skin, it's still wise to wash your hands after touching fish-tank water.
        From Health News, Massachusetts Medical Society; reprinted from Reader's Digest.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1998                    Return to top of page

Species? Subspecies? or Population?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

       With all the scientific names in the killifish world, and the fairly constant rate of change as more is learned about the relationship of species, understanding this complex subject becomes progressively more confusing. Yet the concept of species is integral to our understanding of killifish relationships and the natural world.
        Before further discussion, a few definitions may be in order.
        Species: a group of animals that usually share morphological similarities (that is, they look pretty much alike), are able to breed, and produce offspring that are viable through numerous generations.
        Subspecies: a group of individuals belonging to the same species, but that are 1) usually somewhat morphologically different than the "main" form, and 2) have an allopatric distribution (their range is not coincidental with the "main" type).
        Population: a group genetically belonging to a species, but that is reproductively completely isolated from other members of that species. The "population" designation rarely has any taxonomic value.
        "The concept of species seems intuitively easy to grasp," says Jeff Lehman, "although it’s not too hard to find problems with, especially when considering the Fundulopanchax gardneri or Aphyosemion bittatum species complexes."
        "These concepts (species, subspecies, and population) are all artificial," points out Rui Carniero Martins. "For the fish, it makes no difference if its partner belongs to its species or not – as long as the right conditions and courtship signals are met, they’ll try to breed."
        "We can find examples of the controversy of how to delineate a species … in Cyprinodon," says Ted Klotz. "Most crossing experiments reveal these ‘species’ to be completely able to produce viable offspring, yet they are considered different species. Their separation has been based on geographical barriers."
        Such "species complexes" share a number of characteristics (morphological, physiological, and even genetic) but usually don’t intercross in nature. Geographical barriers are just one of many possible reasons: differences in courtship, circadian behavior, water chemistry, etc. In artificial habitats (aquaria) these natural conditions are rarely met; consequently the natural barriers to breeding usually disappear and interbreeding can occur.
        "Preserving species/subspecies/populations ought to be a common goal for all aquarists," says Rui Martins. "Now, we all know that any organism is the result of what is encoded on its genes. Change that information and you get a different organism." Members of a species, although different individually, share common genetic information that allows for some compatibility when reproducing. However, when crosses occur between different species, genetic incompatibility arises and the offspring are rarely viable. This rule is somewhat fluid: Offspring of such hybrids might be fertile, partially fertile, or infertile, but they still remain hybrids and their distribution is strictly forbidden, except for scientific purposes and with adequate documentation.
        "Usually, subspecies and populations are segments of the species that are beginning to take an evolutionary step towards speciation," adds Rui. Unfortunately, it’s hard to tell beforehand how far apart they are; you really don’t know if you’ll get infertile species or not. It might take two or three generations before the incompatibility is established and fertility drops.
        Keeping track of the correct information on the fish we keep is no minor task. However, "the complications imposed by keeping track of location names is trivial compared to the problems introduced by the accidental ‘hybrids’ created because the location names were ignored and the fish were really not the same species," argues Lee Harper.
        Unfortunately, points out Wright Huntley, "the scientific (taxonomic) community is years behind" hobbyists, and genetic difference does not mean morphological difference – two species might appear nearly identical and be completely incompatible.
        "Aquarium strains" can also be considered populations, since they, too, are evolving and can become extinct. They also can become quite robust and establish themselves. A. australe is a good example of this: some fish produce very few eggs (if at all), while others produce large spawns. For this reason, you should never look down on aquarium strains.
        "Subspecies are all guesswork," says Richard Sexton, "and especially hard for freshwater populations. There typically should be a geographical separation. If two populations can mix geographically but still retain their identity, they are usually separate species." 
        "The subspecies concept was (is) all too subjective and contentious," contends Jeff Lehman. "The use of populations is much more clearly defined, although one is left with establishing the degree of relatedness of different populations of the same species." The use of collection data to identify populations allows a more or less easy way for the hobbyist to keep different "strains" separate, with obvious benefit to the hobby.
        "Locality codes are useful to the purists who wish to maintain the integrity of the genetics of the small individual populations. They have no official standing in the biological literature," observes Ralph Taylor. "As long as we use morphomological characters or chromosome numbers as a way of defining a species we will always have problems of determining what a species is. The current rush to DNA analysis and molecular genetics studies will hopefully answer some questions."
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 1999                    Return to top of page

"Sports" in Killikeeping
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        From time to time an unusual fish occurs in a killikeeper's tanks. Among a normally colored batch of fry one will occur with a different color or pattern, or lacking dark pigment altogether, an albino. These "sports" are normal occurrences in nature, the result of minor mutations in the normal patterns of inheritance that determine color, fin shape, etc.
        Occurring most often in long-established aquarium strains, such sports have resulted in a number of fish we take for granted in the hobby today - wagtail platys and swordtails, long-fin danios, balloon mollys, discus, veiltail angels, the many varieties of fancy guppies.
        Most sports that occur in the wild, especially albinos, are weeded out by natural selection, but some sports thrive. Consider the yellow and red strains of Nothobranchius korthause, for example, which occur together in the same pools, or the yellow and blue forms of Fundulopanchax gardneri nigerianum, which also occur together in the wild.
        Color variants are due to recessive mutations in the production of pigment, usually allowing the underlying colors to show through more clearly.
        In albinos, perhaps the most commonly occurring sports, this results in a base color that is pale cream or yellow-white, against which the colored spotting patterns stand out clearly. The eyes are always pink, or red. Albinism is hardly uncommon in the killifish world. It has been observed - and some strains maintained for long periods of time - in a number of species. Because albinism is a recessive gene, it takes two parents with that gene to produce an albino. Any two albinos bred together will produce only albino offspring. An albino bred to a normal individual will produce normal colored fry that carry the recessive albino gene. When these offspring are bred together, they will (in theory) produce 25% albino, 25% normal (without the recessive albino gene), and 50% normal colored (with the albino gene).
        There is no known way to determine whether an isolated normal colored individual carries the gene for albinism. However, by breeding a normal colored individual to an albino and then breeding the normal colored offspring back to their albino parent, you can quickly establish a "strain" of albinos.
        "Fixing" other sport characteristics is also possible, but can require considerably more effort and time. By breeding the "sport" parent to a normal individual, and then line breeding the offspring (brother to sister, daughter to father, son to mother and so on), you can usually, over several generations, establish a strain that will breed true.
        Among aquarium strains of killifish, selective breeding of sports has led to the development of the gold form of Aplocheilus lineatus, the gold and red-orange forms of Aphyosemion australe, and the blushing and pink-tail forms of Nothobranchius guentheri, among others. Albino forms of Aphyosemion gardneri and Cynolebias whitei are common. New sports continue to occur in various species from time to time.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 1997                    Return to top of page

Tank Additives - Oak Leaves
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Put tree leaves in your tanks, you ask? Well, why not? Through experience, a number of killikeepers have found that the addition of oak and certain other leaves to their fish tanks has proven beneficial.
        "Oak leaves are a useful addition to a killi setup," says John De Luca. "What can be more natural than nature's own tannins to acidify the water for Aphyosemions? … I have found that the quantity of leaves doesn't matter as long as the pH will not drop below 6.3." Quality of the leaves is another important factor. "Use only leaves that have fallen from the tree when they are brown," John cautions, "and make certain that no animals have fouled the ground they lie on. You can also try beech leaves, which seem to last longer."
        "I use whole oak leaves a lot," says Ted Klotz. "It does help to acidify the water somewhat and also gives the water a nice amber coloration. In addition, it gives the fish a place to hide. Most Aphyosemions are shy and need as many places to hide as you can provide. Most Aphyosemions come from streams where leaf litter is quite common, so it makes them feel a little more at home. It seems to me that the more 'cluttered' [the tank is] with leaves, java moss, mops, etc., the more you see the fish. Leave the front clear and they'll honestly come out and see you once in a while."
        "I don't boil the leaves," Ted says. "I usually pick them up off the ground in the fall when they're dry. I store them in a grocery bag and whenever I set up a new tank I add a few. They float for a few days and then sink. The only problem they present is clogging the intake when you're siphoning off mulm, but the benefits far outweigh the detrements." Collected in the fall and stored dry in mesh or paper bags, oak leaves will keep for a year.
        Other leaves have also been successfully used by aquarists.
        "I use the leaves of Terminalia catappa, the tropical almond, for the same purpose," reports Ramon De La Cuetara, who lives in Puerto Rico. "According to a betta breeder in Singapore, the tannins have antimicrobial activity, in addition to acidification and coloring the water."
        "I have used grape leaves in the past," says Bruce Bernard. "Many wine making supply houses carry grape tannin processes from the skins of grapes. It takes about 100 mg. to 10 gallons to give the water a rich hue. Very potent!"
        Of course, in time leaves will decompose, producing litter. Put the leaves in "nylon sacks (found at fish stores or made from old nylons) with a rock in the bottom, and place them in the tank (or filter) where there is a good flow," suggests B ruce Bernard. "This will keep them from littering the whole tank. I also do this in water I age, using one large nylon sack and just transferring it between containers."
        As the vegetation breaks up, infusorians flourish, giving the fish (especially fry) an additional food source. "Oak leaves [also] help daphnia," points out Ted Klotz. "M y favorite [collecting] spot has many oak and beech leaves as a substrate."
        One type of leaf to not use is maple. "All us 'old-timers' know that maple leaves won't work," says Lowell Patrick. Dick Martino agrees. "I would be very hesitant about using maple leaves," he cautions. "They contain certain phenolic compounds which could cause some problems, and they do not decompose very well."
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 1999                    Return to top of page

Tips from the Fishroom …
We’ve all learned little tricks and techniques that might be of interest to others.
        For storing water-incubating killifish eggs, most publications recommend using fairly small containers, grouping no more than a couple of dozen eggs together, and using water from the parents’ tank. But water from an existing tank already has bacteria and other microorganisms growing in it. This may cause rapid deterioration of water quality and damage to incubating eggs.
        "I use new, clean, conditioned water at room temperature," says Donna Recktenwalt. Newly picked eggs are placed in small plastic or glass containers ("sauce" containers from the deli, or baby food jars), and labeled with species and date. Every second or third day bad eggs are removed and the old water replaced with fresh.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 2000                    Return to top of page

To Filter … or Not to Filter
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        We all know that good water quality is essential for success with our fish. Maintaining good water quality usually involves some combination of filtration, water movement, and regular partial water changes. Of these, most experts agree that regular partial water changes are the most important. Over time, evaporation concentrates the mineral and toxic contents of aquarium water. If the concentration levels rise too high, the fish can be adversely affected, with results ranging from slower growth rates and lack of vigor to death. Regular removal of part of the tank water and replacement with fresh water dilutes the mineral level and reduces the concentration of waste products, helping to keep them within acceptable levels.
        All tanks require regular tank "grooming" and water changes. Additional filtration in the aquarium can serve many purposes.
        Filters maintain water movement, which is important to help prevent stagnation and souring of the water due to bacterial action. Water movement also helps maintain lower surface tension, fostering better air/water interchange. Water movement may be generated by a slow running airstone, or a full filtering system.
        Filters carry particulate matter and waste to a filter bed – whether in an outside filter, an internal filter, or a substrate filter – where it can be removed and broken down by bacteria. In filter systems that include carbon, fine particles and many toxins are "trapped" and removed from the water.
        Filters, however, require regular maintenance to remain properly functional. Regular rinsing of filter media and checking for proper operation are essential. An improperly maintained filter or one that has been turned off can rapidly poison a tank’s inhabitants.
        Among killikeepers, filtration preferences lean heavily toward internal foam and cartridge filters, often with the volume adjusted to a slow flow rate. Most fish seem comfortable with this arrangement. Tanks for smaller fry and growout tanks may have no filtration at all.
        How long can fish manage with minimal attention? Some aquarists have found that their fish do fine for several months on a water change every three weeks. After that vitality drops and losses begin. The growth rate in fry is reduced when water changes are not frequent enough, with or without filtration.
        Obviously, with no filtration water changes must be more diligent. Using plants helps, with Java Moss and Java Fern seeming to be the plants of choice for tanks receiving less light; for brighter tanks, Watersprite is a favorite. All three plants are fairly hardy under the right conditions and require little care.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 2000                    Return to top of page

Basic Fishkeeping
Usefulness of the Slime Coat
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

       Although aquarists and fishermen may dislike handling "slimy" fish, the slime coat serves a highly important function. Like skin, a fish's slime coat protects against invasion by bacteria and fungi, defends against minor damage, and serves as a barrier against harmful environmental conditions such as excess acidity or harsh chemicals. In short, the slime coat is an adaptation by nature to life in a watery environment.
        Slime originates from continually replaced glandular cells in the fish's skin that produce a glycoprotein known as mucin, which when mixed with water produces mucus. Fish with poorly developed scales tend to be more slimy.
        Slime serves three main functions: 1) it helps to regulate the internal/external ionic balance and the efficiently of gas transport through the skin (osmoregulation); 2) it provides external protection, helping to prevent the attachment of parasites by making a slippery surface, and by sloughing off or actually suffocating pathogens, and acts as a bandage, covering wounds; and 3) it reduces turbulence by smoothing over the areas between the scales, thus reducing energy loss and aiding movement.
        For some fish, other benefits also accrue from slime: toxicity, for defense or offense; formation of a cocoon for sleeping (parrotfish) or moisture retention (lungfish); food for fry, as provided by discus or some of the Asian catfishes, whose protein rich slime is an important early food; alarm chemicals that spread through the water from injury or panic (fright syndrome); and nest-building materials, as for the labyrinth fishes.
        Stress to the fish occurs whenever the slime coat or slime production are affected, either in amount or in viscosity. Too much or too little slime production, and a fish will die. Some medications can act as proteinaceous precipitants, causing excess slime production. Copper, in particular, is an irritant to the skin and to the gill membranes, which then produce excess mucus. When this excess mucus is sloughed off, the irritants (bacteria, etc.) go with it. However, excess slime can also impede gaseous exchange by the skin and gills.
        What does all of this mean to the aquarist? Use care when handling fish, to as much as possible prevent damage to the mucus coat. And always use caution regarding what enters or comes into contact with tank water.

Reference:  Fenner, Bob and Cindy, D.V.M. "The Function of Body Slime in Fishes." Freshwater and Marine Aquarium,
     June 1986, pp. 75-79
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1998                    Return to top of page

        "I believe the worst way to care for fish during a vacation is to entrust them to someone else–no matter how experienced and dedicated they may be," says Lee Harper. In most cases, bigger fish will survive without feeding for a week or two, but caring for fry, especially if you have a number of tanks with fry in them, is another story. To solve this problem, Lee "was forced to find a passive, non-threatening way to feed fry" while he was away for up to several weeks at a time.
        Lee’s answer proved simple, and has proven its worth over a period of years. "I simply put a small piece of leaf lettuce (Romaine, Buttercrunch, etc.) along with some pond or ramshorn snails in each shoebox containing fry." It’s a simple system: the snails eat the lettuce, rotifers feed on their droppings, and the fry feed on the rotifers. "This provides a change in diet which is beneficial to the fish; I’m resolved to take more ‘vacations’ from feeding … even when I am not away from home."
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, September 1999                    Return to top of page

Vacation Care - What to do When You Won't Be There To Do It
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        No matter the degree of involvement with our fish, there are occasions when we aquarists just can't provide the level of care to our charges that we'd like, times when we simply must neglect our fish or be away from our fishrooms for a time. Whatever the reason for such a lapse, there is seldom cause for panic. In most cases, a little benign neglect will do the fish no harm; in others, a little planning ahead can reduce potential problems.
        Fish need not necessarily be fed while you are away.
        "I have routinely left my fish unfed for over two weeks," reports Oleg Kiselev. "It's far preferable ... to find my fish hungry than to find desiccated carcasses on the floor and fungussed bloated corpses in the tanks. Unless your tanks are completely sterile, they're full of living creatures that the fish can graze on.... Java moss is a veritable treasure trove.... Fish can live like this for quite a while."
        "It is safer to leave fish unfed for a week or two than to allow an inexperienced friend to care for them," agrees John Hladky.
        "Don't overfeed them as you leave," advises Wright Huntley. "Instead, feed well until the next to last day. Starve [them] for one day, then give [them] a major water change to lower any ammonia produced, just as you leave. Avoid ... those 'vacation feeder' blocks." They drive the pH out of sight and do very little good.
        "Keep the water quality high and the temperature within the survival range your fish can tolerate," Wright further suggests. Many people forget that if the fish aren't eating, they also aren't excreting. The water change before you leave gives the fish the optimum possible water quality while you are away.
        Most killikeepers maintain their tanks at ambient house temperatures. Don't reset the thermostat to a lower range as you leave; this may result in the fish becoming stressed from cold beyond their tolerance levels.
        Most killikeepers have lighting for their tanks. If you have no plants, you can leave the fishroom dark while you are gone; the fish will hardly mind at all. If you have plants, the tanks must have light. The most cost-effective and time-saving lighting systems are those utilizing timers to turn the lights on and off at regular, preset intervals. If you have not already taken this step, the modest investment of a plug-in timer for your tank lights is a very good idea.
--G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 1998                    Return to top of page

A Variation on Fry Boxes

        Most killikeepers are well aware of the usefulness of clear plastic shoe- and sweater boxes for keeping their fish and raising fry. But the problem remains of those inevitable "jumpers." George White of Arlington, Virginia, offered the following suggestion. The information originally appeared in the April 1986 issue of Freshwater and Marine Aquarium.
        Using an X-acto blade or similar cutting tool, remove the center panel from the shoe- or sweater-box cover, approximately one inch from the edge. Next, drill a hole (using a standard drill bit or a heated nail held in pliers) in one corner of the cover, big enough to thread a piece of airline hose through. Cut a piece of plastic window screening slightly larger than the removed section of lid, then glue in place using silicone aquarium sealant; season at least 24 hours before use.
        Now all you need do is fill the container with water, plants, and fish, and add an airstone or foam filter. The fish in these aquaria, with their modified covers, won't have the chance to suicide into crispy critters on your fishroom floor.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 1998                    Return to top of page

Water Borne Infections

        It doesn't happen often, but aquarists have acquired infections from their aquaria, specifically granulomatous infections from Mycobacteria.
        Mycobacterium (the same genus of bacteria that causes Tuberculosis) species, such as Mycobacterium marinum, exist in many home aquaria. These can gain access through open cuts or scrapes, and cause granulomatous infections. Such infections are often improperly diagnosed, unless a biopsy is done. Subsequent treatment may involve a course of up to several months of antibiotics.
        An unpleasant prospect to most of us, at best; a possibly life threatening situation to those whose immune systems are suppressed.
        To avoid concern, use rubber gloves when working in your fish tanks.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter - September 1996                    Return to top of page

Basic Fishkeeping –  
Water Changes
By Donna M. Recktenwalt  

      One fact that is mentioned in almost every published aquatic resource, regardless of species, water type or tank size, is the need for regular partial water changes. Unfortunately, despite the fact that water changes are a good and useful thing to do, many people don’t do them.
      Why not?
      Because it’s messy; it’s sometimes smelly; it takes too much time. Besides, the plants and the fish seem fine, so why bother?
      Except …
      Regular water changes help prevent algae blooms. Algae feed on nitrates and phosphates, which do the fish no good. Change the water, the algae won’t have as much source of nutrition, and the fish will be happier.
      Regular water changes help prevent fish disease. Fish having to deal with high amounts of ammonia and nitrates are stressed; stressed fish are more susceptible to disease.
      Regular partial water changes replenish trace minerals and oxygen that become depleted over time due to filtering, and to normal biological processes.
      Regular partial water changes allow young fish to reach larger sizes more quickly.
      And the influx of fresh water often will stimulate spawning.
      When you should change the water depends on many factors: how many tanks do you have? How much conditioned water do you have on hand at a given time? How heavy is the fish load in your tanks? What type of filtering are you using? Do you use live plants?
      In general, the water should be clear, light colored (unless you’re using peat, when it may turn quite dark), and it should smell fresh. If the water is cloudy or dark or has an odd odor, it’s time to change it. If the fish or the plants appear distressed, or the fish are showing signs of illness, it’s past time to change the water. If the filter hasn’t been operating properly, or if the intake tubes are slimy and clogged, it’s time to change the water and clean the equipment.
      By doing regular partial water changes, you should almost never have to face doing a forced water change, because conditions in your tanks will remain fairly stable.

– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, October 1999                    Return to top of page

Water Changes–Revisited
What's so important about … Water Changes
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

Water Changes for Small Fry
        We all know that fry grow better when their water is kept clean, and that means regular water changes. But many fry are sensitive to changing water parameters. So how do you change the water in fry tanks without overly distressing or losing fry?
        "I use Billi Tetra Sponge filters," says Robert Nahn, "and let the water back down through the airline by gravity. The filter head must be above water level to do this. I like Tetra Sponge because it is very fine. Other sponges, such as Dirt Magnet, seem too big for very tiny fry."
        Brian Watters suggests using a large tank for newly hatched fry, starting with a low water level and then raising it as the fry grow by adding clean water. "One of the advantages of using a large tank (although starting off with very shallow water) that has an established filter and plants is that you should not have to change the water until the fry are quite large." Once the fry start to take brine shrimp, small additions of water can be made every couple of days. Brian uses this technique for all his Notho fry. If it does become necessary to change the water for small fry, he suggests suspending a small brine shrimp net in the tank, and using an airline hose or one of similar size to siphon from within the net. A slow siphon won’t draw the net against the intake tube.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 1999                    Return to top of page

Water Conductivity
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Killiekeepers have many tools available to help monitor water quality, including test kits of various kinds. One such tool measures the total dissolved solids (TDS) in water. Readouts from such a unit are useful in measuring the relative TDS, and fish seem to be more sensitive to major differences in hardness (dissolved solids) than they do to differences in pH.
        Scheel, in his chapter dealing with breeding non-annuals in Rivulins of the Old World, wrote: "As my two types of water have similar salinities I can move the individuals right in and right out of one type of water without any harm. Differences in pH values, even from 5.0 to 8.0, have not produced any harm when individuals are moved from one type of water to the other." This 3 pH unit jump equals a 1000x change in acid-base concentration.
        "My impression (based on experience and lots of mistakes) is that osmocity (TDS change), and not acidity (pH change) is the stronger stress-producing change agent," says Wright Huntley. "Somehow, going quickly from high TDS to low is worst. Apparently cells start to explode before the osmotic barrier has a chance to form up. That seems to cause more permanent gill damage than the cell dehydration of going from soft to hard water. When in doubt, drip acclimate."
        Additionally, "As fish are repeatedly bred in captivity, they usually lose the need for soft acid water to do well. Many rain-forest fishes adapt over the generations to the harder, more alkaline water [of aquaria]."
        "There are some practical aspects [about TDS meters] that should be kept in mind," points out Barry Cooper.
        1. The small TDS and conductivity (MicroSiemens) meters both measure the same thing, i.e., conductivity. They are simply calibrated differently, so that one produces a reading numerically twice the other.
        2. The only way to determine true TDS is to evaporate the sample to dryness and weigh the solid residue.
        "I would bet," adds Barry, "that (by weight) the vast majority of dissolved material in the average pool or tank water is mineral matter (which produces most of the charged ions) rather than organics, etc." In any event, "the TDS meters that hobbyists use measure conductivity and dissolved organics do not add to that."
        TDS meters "measure what the fish feel, pretty well," says Wright Huntley. "The TDS determines how the fishes’ three-level fluid control system works to maintain body fluids by osmosis. In my opinion, sudden changes in TDS are dramatically more harmful that pH ‘shock.’ "
        "The other factor that needs to be considered is the effect of those dissolved solids on colligative (chemical binding) properties such as osmotic pressure, boiling point, elevation, freezing point etc.," Lee Harper points out. "Osmotic pressure is perhaps the most important, because that is the property that will destroy gills if changed too rapidly, especially downward. Any material in solution will affect the colligative properties of the solution, whether ionic or nonionic, organic or inorganic." Very simply put, "the property of the dissolved material that affects the colligative property is the number of atoms or molecules." Thus, "a trisodium salt (trisodium phosphate, for example) will have approximately 3 times the effect on osmotic pressure as a mono sodium salt or an acid of the same molecular weight."
        "Remember these two principles and the consequences," Lee recommends:
        1. Change fish to a new environment gradually if you have any doubts about the water chemistry.
        2. Be especially cautious in switching to water with lower dissolved solids, because that change is most damaging to the gills. To avoid unexpected problems add some salt (sodium chloride) to all water and the shock to new fish will be much less severe.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, September 1999                    Return to top of page

Water Hardness - A Comparison
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        Maintaining fish in an artificial environment poses a number of questions to the aquarist, but one thing we all must deal with is water.
        We know that for our fishes to thrive, their water must be clean, free of chemical contaminants, and capable of retaining dissolved oxygen. It also must fall within the appropriate temperature, pH, and hardness parameters.
        For a simple item, then, water poses complex questions.
        In this article, we will discuss the matter of hardness.
        Water may be "soft" (very little dissolved mineral content), or "hard" (a great deal of dissolved mineral content). In the home, the greatest differences noticed between the two may be the sudsing levels of soaps and the amount of "scale" buildup in pipes. For the aquarist, the level of hardness has a direct effect on the pH buffering ability of the water. Some of us may draw our water supply from a municipal source, some from local wells, some from collected rainwater. Some aquarists have water so hard - or so dissimilar to that required by the fish they keep - that they have installed Reverse Osmosis systems to assure a steady supply of suitable water.

Total Water Hardness, or General Hardness (GH), which is measured by most water test kits, consists of Temporary Hardness plus Permament Hardness.

Temporary Hardness, also known as Carbonate Hardness (KH) is a measure of the bicarbonates precipitated upon boiling, and consists mostly of Calcium and Magnesium salts. This is the "scale" that accumulates inside a teakettle or pot. It is Carbonate Hardness (KH) which determines the pH buffering capacity of water

Permanent Hardness refers to sulphate and chloride salts, which do not precipitate upon boiling.

        To confuse the issue farther, there are at least four different scales of hardness in general use: US, Clark (UK), German (dH), and French (fH). The table which accompanies this article offers a comparison among them. All values are calculated in equivalent CaCo3 in milligrams per liter.
        In most cases, published species information includes water hardness and pH preferences. However, most species are adaptable. For new species that have not yet made their way into the literature, determining appropriate conditions may prove a challenge. However, the following may provide some guidance.
        In most cases, South American annuals prefer softer water and Nothobranchius species hard water. Barry Cooper indicates that he keeps his South Americans in soft water (100 ppm TDS), with or without the addition of salt. Most SA annuals, he says, don't seem to particularly mind acid water. Nothobranchius species, on the other hand, he maintains in water that measures TDS 250-280, plus 1/2 tsp. salt per gallon. In the wild, Barry notes, most Nothos are found in alkaline water.
        Jorgen Scheel recommends hard, alkaline water with a pH of up to 8.0 for killifish.
        Many breeders have found that Aphyosemion species do well in half tap water (hard) and half soft water.

Comparison of US, British, German, and French Hardness Designations (mg/L)

Term                       US (1)             Clark (UK) (14.3)  German (dH)(17.9)     French (fH) (20)
Soft                         US 0-50          Clark 0-3.5             German 0-2.8             French 0-2.5
Moderately Soft      US 50-100      Clark 3.5-7. 0         German 2.8-5.6          French 2.5-5.0
Slightly Hard          US 100-200     Clark 7.0-14. 0       German 5.6-11.2        French 5.0-10.0
Moderately Hard    US 200-300     Clark 14.0-21. 0     German 11.2-16.8      French 10.0-15.0
Hard                       US 300-450     Clark 21.0-31.5      German 16.8-25.1      French 15.0-22.5
Very Hard               US 450+          Clark 31.5+            German 25.1+            French 22.6+
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter - February 1997                    Return to top of page

Water Values and Water Tests
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        We all know how much we depend on the advances of modern technology for our fishroom: automatic heaters, automatic timers for lighting, electrically driven air pumps and filters.
        But what about the more mundane items that we use almost every day, and which we couldn't manage our hobby without?
        "These days, technology ahs invaded the fishroom," writes Rick Borstein in the May 1999 issue of Cichlid Chatter, newsletter of the Greater Chicago Cichlid Association.
        "However, it is often the more mundane tools that help us the most. Take, for example, the bucket. Could you keep fish without one?" What about a turkey baster? Use it to feed brine shrimp, to remove eggs and fry from filters, to help clean up breeding and fry tanks.
        A flashlight is handy, too, especially in some of those darker corners; go to any killifish show and you'll know the serious fishkeepers by the mini flashlights in their pockets, the better to see the fish with.
        Other items find their way into fishroom use, too: old toothbrushes (for scrubbing filters and tubing), single edged razor blades (algae scrapers), measuring spoons, nylon dish scrubbers (great for harvesting vinegar eels) – these are just a few of the useful items that make their way into the fishroom from "regular life."
        Don't you have a couple of favorites too?
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter – June 1999                    Return to top of page

What Is A Fishroom?
By Donna M. Recktenwalt

        If an aquarium is a container that holds water suitable for maintaining aquatic life, then a fishroom is an area set aside for the primary purpose of keeping aquaria. It may be as simple as a couple of tanks on a shelf, or as complex as a specially designed room with central air and water systems. Individual fishrooms vary as much as those who keep them. Some prefer a high-tech approach to the hobby; others cheerfully utilize whatever available materials will do the job. Some fishkeepers have only a species or two and are content to simply admire them; others can't wait for the next new fish, or the next show.
        Whatever your intent, having a dedicated area for your fish makes for more efficient distribution of air and power and simplifies basic maintenance chores, while limiting potential damage from spillage.
        Regardless of location or size, all fishrooms share several basic characteristics. All hold containers of various sizes suitable for holding water, eggs, live food and/or fish. All have power for lights, heaters, and filtration. All provide for storage of equipment and supplies, and many have some provision for storing and aging water. Those fishrooms located in basements often have their own water supply and drains.
        There is no "best way" to keep killifish. As long as their basic needs are met clean water, sufficient light, enough heat, plenty of space and protective cover, and adequate food the fish themselves don't care whether they're living in a high-tech, gleaming fishroom or a closet corner with a single light bulb and one small tank. Given the basics, most fish will do well. All the rest the design and layout of the fishroom, the tanks and their arrangement, the lighting source, the filtration or circulation, the attractiveness of the plantings are simply a matter of personal taste, aesthetics, and practicality.

Some of the Variables
        Aquaria. What constitutes "an aquarium" is a matter for personal definition and convenience, and is limited only by a material's ability to hold water. "Aquaria" include plastic tubs, boxes, and containers; glass jars and kitchenware; rubber or fiberglass buckets, tubs, and trash barrels; Styrofoam picnic and fish boxes; and regular tanks of plastic, glass, or acrylic.
        These may be arranged in any manner ranked in tiers on shelves, placed on the floor or on bookshelves, set on any available surfaces. Most aquarists with more than a few tanks find the most efficient arrangement is to group the tanks, narrow ends out, on heavy duty shelving or 2x4racks with the smaller tanks at the top and the larger ones below. Such arrangement allows for efficient layout of lights and air supply lines, and easier access for cleaning and maintenance.
        Covers. Since many killifish are notorious jumpers, tanks are usually fitted with covers. These may consist of sheets of glass or acrylic, commercial combination covers containing lights, or some type of screening to keep the fish in and other critters out.
        Lights are usually fluorescent, either hung above the racks of tanks or laid atop them. Species that prefer darker conditions can be kept in tanks at the far ends of rows, or on unlit shelves.
        Heating. Most killifish do well at ambient room temperatures, although some prefer much warmer or cooler conditions. If you have a basement fishroom, supplemental heating using either a small room heater or individual tank heaters may be required. If you live in a part of the country with hot summers, air conditioning during some months may be necessary.
        Plants. Only a few of the killifish species are aggressively herbivorous; most do quite well in planted aquaria. Plants provide cover for both adults and fry, sites for egg laying, a source for infusoria and other microscopic foods, and an effective ammonia soak, helping maintain water quality. Java moss is a staple in most fishrooms, growing in even low light conditions. Other favorites for low light situations include the Cryptocorenes and Java Fern. High light level standbys include Water Sprite, Hygrophilia, Hornwort, and some of the smaller floating plants, such as Duckweed, Salvinia, and Riccia.
        Filters. Just about every type of filter has been used by killifish fanciers, from none at all the most sophisticated. All types undergravel, box, foam, trickle, and inside and outside filters have their proponents, but for tanks up to 10 gallons few can beat internal foam filters. For larger tanks, outside and power filters move more water and improve overall tank cleanliness. For small fry, a mass of java moss and a couple of snails in the container often suffice.
        Substrates, too, are a matter of personal preference. Some aquarists won't be without a gravel or sand substrate in all tanks; others swear by the bare tank approach. With gravel substrates, the tank has a chance to develop a good colony of beneficial bacteria; at the same time, it provides hiding places for decaying material, which can cause water quality problems. The bare tank approach assures cleanliness, since you can see potential problems before they become serious; but it may also require more maintenance to keep that bottom spotless.
        In both bare tank and substrate setups, Corydoras catfish are often used as supplemental "cleaners," and do very well. Cory cats should not, however, be used in spawning tanks for the annual species, since they will stir up the spawning material, searching for the eggs.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 1998                    Return to top of page

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