---   The Fishroom Library Archives   ---

Articles on Plants and Related Topics -- 1996-2005

An archived collection of articles, tips, and information about tropical fishkeeping in general, and killi-keeping in particular, from past issues of the G.C.K.A. Newsletter.  To read an article, please click on the title (in blue).

All material is copyright © G.C.K.A. or the authors, unless otherwise noted. Reproduction is permitted for non-commercial purposes only (i.e., club bulletins). We do request that you provide source credit, and send us a copy of the publication in which the article appears. Please forward to G.C.K.A., c/o Recktenwalt, 4337 Ridgepath Drive, Dayton, OH 45424.

Anubias
Aquarium Plants Aren't Always So ... some are terrestrial. How to tell the difference.
Cardinal Flower (Lobelia cardinalis) - a switch hitter.
Cryptocorynes - an overview.
Crystalwort (Riccia fluitans)
Duckweed? A Few Remedies.
Duckweed (Lemna minor)
Elodea, Anacharis, etc. (Egeria [Elodea] densa)
Fontinalis antipyretica (Water Moss, etc.)
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum)
Hygrophilia, Indian Water Star (Hygrophilia polysperma)
Java Fern (Microsorium [Polypodium] pteropus)
Java Moss
Java Moss - revisited.
Java Moss - Reprise
Najas Grass (Najas guadelupensis)
Najas Grass (Najas guadelupensis, N. indica)
Plants for Killie Tanks
Plants Need Light
Potted Plants? Well, Why Not? - a neat way to have plants, and fish too.
Should You Use Plastic Plants? 
Small-leaved Salivinia (Salvinia auriculata)
Sterilizing Plants - when you really need to get them clean.
Swordplants (Aponogetum species)
Swordplants (Echinodorus species)
Ten More Plants for Beginners
Want Plants, but a Neat Tank too? - one fishkeeper's answer.
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
Water Sprite
The Water Sprite Family
Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)
Water Wisteria (Hygrophilia difformis)

        The African Anubias are aquarist’s favorites. They are sturdy, long lived plants with clear green heart-shaped leaves that tolerate a wide range of aquarium conditions. Snails rarely harm them. They’re not terribly fussy about water, and they thrive in moderate light and at ordinary aquarium temperatures.
        Although they tend to be slow growers, Anubias are dependable. They grow from a rhizome, and can be left loose or attached to a rock or a piece of wood. They can be easily divided to produce daughter plants, or left alone to produce a dense clump of leaves.
        Perhaps best known are A. barteri var. Nana, which grows 4" tall and has a dense, compact growth habit; and A. barteri var. Glaba, which may reach 10".
        All Anubias prefer moderate light, moderately soft water and ordinary aquarium temperatures.
Preferred Conditions: moderately soft water; temperature 72-82ºF; pH 6.0-7.5; moderate light. 
- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 2002                                                                           Return to top of page

        It’s probably happened to us all – we’re shopping in an aquarium store, looking at the plants, and find some that look surprisingly familiar, plants that could be twins to the ones we (or others we know) usually raise in pots on the windowsill.
        Aquarists have long known that many terrestrial plants are occasionally sold as aquarium plants. At best, this practice can be confusing; at worst, it can lead to problems in our tanks as a result of dead and dying plant life. Some terrestrial plants may do well in aquaria, but most will eventually die from suffocation. Many will look good for a while, but eventually they will drown and rot, polluting the aquarium and possibly killing fish. Also, terrestrial plants may carry with them pesticide and other chemical residues, which can also cause harm to fish.
        When you’re not certain, how do you tell whether a plant is really an aquarium plant? Wlad Franco-Valias, writing in The Calquarium (Vol. 42, No. 6), suggests the following.
        1. The Leaf Test. Submerged leaves of true aquatic plants are thinner and look more delicate than aerial leaves, are often translucent and hairless, and absorb nutrients from the water. Aerial leaves are usually thicker, and often have a protective coating to prevent dehydration.
        2. The Rigidity Test. Aquatic plants have no need to support their weight and have soft stems that bend with flowing water. Without the support of water, many of these plants will lose their shape. Bog and marginal plants will hold their shape well in the air, but also do well underwater; they have adapted to live with fluctuating water levels. Marginal plants require wet roots, but will usually die if fully submerged.
        3. The Grandma Test. Does the plant look like one your grandmother once had? If it does, or if you’ve seen one like it in a garden center, it’s probably not an aquatic plant.
        There are exceptions to the above rules, of course. Some plants, such as Java Moss, Java Fern, and the Anubias, are truly amphibious and will do well either in a warm, humid dry environment, or submerged. With time and experience, you can sometimes but not always learn to identify the exceptions. One aquarist was certain that an Anubias barteri nana wouldn’t grow underwater; of course, it did. Another aquarist bought a variegated plant at a reputable store; it eventually resulted in some dead and some blind fish, due either to the plant’s own toxins or to chemical residues.
        When you see an "unusual" aquatic plant, it may or may not be a candidate for your aquarium. Put it through the three tests. And if you still really like it, take it home, put it in a quarantine tank and watch it carefully. If it begins to rot you won’t have harmed anything else; if it starts to grow, you may have found one of the exceptions! 
Reference:Franco-Valias, Wlad. "Terrestrial Plants Sold as Aquatics." The Calquarium, Vol. 42, No. 6, republished in Aquarticles.com, reprinted in The Reflector, Central New York Aquarium Society, Oct. 2003.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 2004                                               Return to top of page

        This North American native is more familiar to gardeners than it is to aquarists, often being grown as a decorative addition to the flower border, where its clusters of bright red flowers borne above bright green leaves are much prized.
        It is also quite content when grown submerged. Underwater, it grows more slowly, and the bright green leaves, which alternate on the stem, have a more elliptical shape. L. cardinalis needs a good deal of light (60 w/25 gal.), but is otherwise undemanding. Reproduction is by cuttings.
        Note: The sap of this plant may be toxic for many types of fish, so use only healthy, established plants in aquaria, not new cuttings.
Preferred Conditions: Prefers a pH of 6.5-7.5; hardness of 5-12ºCH; and a temperature range of 68-79ºF.

Resources:  de Graaf, Arie. "Aquarium Plants from the USA." Freshwater and Marine Aquarium, January 19993, p.32-33.

-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter - March 2005                                                                                Return to top of page

        Like many other popular "aquatic" plants, the Cryptocorenes are swamp and bog plants which have become adapted to a shaded aquatic or amphibian life. They are native to the old world tropics, from western India through Ceylon and the Phillipines and on into the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea.
        Most members of the family are attractive in the aquarium and grow abundantly from a creeping rhizome. All have stiff, leathery rosettes of (usually) lanceolate leaves which can withstand conditions of low light and high acidity. Leaves of some species can reach 12" long; some show ruffled edges. Leaf color ranges from bright green to dark olive with some displaying red, brown or purple markings or coloration on the underside.
        Cryptocorynes propagate by runners, and only rarely flower, which can make identification difficult. Crypts prefer a warm substrate, and may need feeding.
        Fairly commonly seen are: C. affinis, velvety green with lighter veins; and C. becketti, olive green above with red-brown markings and undersides, leaf edges wavy.
Preferred Conditions: clean, clear, soft water; temperature 68-86ºF (below 55ºF the upper part of the plant dies off); pH 6.5; low to moderate light . -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 2002                                                Return to top of page

        Although not seen terribly often in supplier's tanks, Riccia is one of those pretty floating plants that many fishbreeders swear by – and others swear at.
        A member of the Liverwort family and found worldwide in still waters and marshes, the individual plants are of Riccia are bright green and tiny (less than an inch in length) and consist of a "thallus" (a vegetative body with no roots, stems, or leaves). But these fast growing, simple little "Y" shaped plants with their flat, forking branches can, under brightly lighted conditions, quickly form dense cushions of vegetation.
        Riccia is basically an undemanding plant, but it dislikes soft, nutrient poor water, and strong currents (as from a power filter) should be avoided. It is a good oxygenator, and is often filled with O₂ bubbles. Riccia makes excellent cover for fry, and is very good as a spawning base for bubble nest building fish.
        On the downside, it can easily develop an entanglement with bladderwort or thread algae, which are nearly impossible to remove, and under conditions of too little light it simply turns sickly and dies off.
Preferred Conditions: dislikes soft, nutrient poor water; 59-86ºF; pH 6.0-8.0; moderate to bright light (bright for best growth).

-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 2001                                                                            Return to top of page

         Duckweed is one of those plants that you either love or hate. A surface plant often regarded as a nuisance, Lemna minor is found on most ponds in North America. It is a tiny, two- to four-leafed plant that floats on the surface, dropping submerged roots. The roots may be short and insubstantial, or in bright sunlight, up to 1" long, fine and tangled. When growth is rampant, plants may pile up in a layer inches deep on the surface of the water.
        In their native habitat, plants sink to the bottom of the pond in winter, to resume growth in the spring. In the aquarium, although Duckweed provides welcome top cover and security for many fish, it can rapidly become a pest, massing in clumps around filter intakes, forming a surface blanket that blocks light, and working its way into spawning mops and equipment. Herbivorous fish such as barbs will eat it readily.
        Two species are known to the aquarium hobby, L. minor from North America, and a larger species more common in Europe, L. tricula (Chain of Stars), which forms pretty branching colonies.
Preferred Conditions: Will grow under almost any conditions, as long as it has sufficient light. Temperature 50-86ºF; pH 5.5-7.5; moderate to bright light. – G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 2002                                Return to top of page

(2) Sick of Duckweed? -- A Few Remedies    

    We all know duckweed (Lemna minor), some of us to distraction. Duckweed can be a boon to the aquarist, serving as cover for fry and welcome shade and security for jumpy fish. But it can also be a bane, sometimes seeming to move through the fishroom like an unwanted plague. "I swear it can jump from tank to tank, just like a killie," says Dave Ogershok.
        What to do, when you’ve decided that skimming and composting just aren’t doing the job? Here are a few suggestions from other aquarists.    
        "Get a couple of small Herotilapia multispinosa (cichlids)," advises Scott Davis. "In several cases where I really wanted to get rid of the duckweed," he says, "I skimmed off what I could," removed the residents and put in the cichlids. "If they weren’t fed, they would browse on the duckweed. When the duckweed ran out, they were removed….
        Native enthusiasts would put in a good word for several minnows – goldens, fatheads, and the rosey-reds of the pet shop feeder tanks. Rainbow people would recommend hungry Melanotaenia. (Then there are goldfish …)"
        Fish of the barb family eat duckweed, says George Davis. "Tinfoil barbs, goldfish, rosy barbs. The rosy is a pretty fish, fun to keep and breed. If you net out most of the duckweed, they will eat the rest."
        "I just ‘harvest’ the duckweed when it gets too dense," says Joe Gardner, "and plop the mass into my African cichlid tank. In two days they’ve eaten all the duckweed… It’s a good supplement to the African’s diet."
        You could also turn off the lights for a few days. Turn off the filter(s). Weight down the other plants in the tank, then skim the duckweed as it drifts up and settles. One drawback to this approach is that any duckweed that you miss, such as that tangled in the plants, will serve as "seed stock" to repopulate the tank. It also is not an "instant cure." It takes time and effort to check and skim the tank to remove the duckweed.
        Perhaps the most drastic approach would be to tear down the tank, clean it, the plants, and the gravel and rockwork thoroughly. Of course, given duckweed’s near mythical ability to reappear, even that may not do it …
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, September 2001                                                                                Return to top of page

Elodea, Anacharis, etc. (Egeria [Elodea] densa)
Synonyms: Elodea latifolia, Udora canadensis

        This free-floating water plant, which carries many names – Ditch Moss, Babington's Curse, Waterweed, Pondweed, Water Pest – is very well known in the Americas. It ranges naturally from Quebec and Saskatchewan to Alabama and Florida, and in South America is originally native to Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil.
        The foliage is dark green, with dense whorls of bright dark green leaves, often curled down. Leaves are elliptical or oblong, up to 1/2 inch long and 1/4 inch wide, finely dentated and whorled, and occur in groups of 3 to 5; upper leaves on a stem often overlap. The stems are paler green and brittle, snapping off easily. Roots occasionally appear at the leaf nodes and partially attach the plant to the bottom.
        Robust and fast-growing (up to an inch a day in strong light) fronds of Elodea may reach 20" long or more. Although it needs a lot of light, it is an exuberant grower and otherwise an undemanding plant.
        Under daylight conditions, the plant will occasionally from an axil of its leaves extend a long, flexible stem to the surface, on which will bloom a single, small, fragile white flower. Propagation is by cuttings.
        Elodea is known as an excellent oxygen producer and water purifier. Some aquarists have found that climbing pH levels may be a problem with Elodea, and that the addition of peat to the water will aid in stabilization.
        Preferred Conditions: Most water conditions; temperature 59-77ºF ; pH 6.5-7.5; moderate to bright light .
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, May 2003                                                                                            Return to top of page

Fontinalis antipyretica (Water Moss, Willow Moss, Leafy Liverwort)

        There are more than two dozen species in the Water Moss family, found in North America, Europe, Northeast Asia and Northern Africa. The plants all have dense, slender, slightly triangular 1/4" dark green leaves which grow from a branching stems. Fontanilis do not have true roots, but do attach readily to rocks and other submerged items.
        Although an excellent spawning medium for fish, these plants are seldom seen in the aquarium hobby since they prefer moving water cooler than that usually found in the tropical aquarium. If kept, they rarely do well. They prefer bright light and a location near a filter outlet, where there is plenty of water movement.
        Propagation is by layering, or side shoots.
Preferred Conditions: cool moving water; temperature 59-72ºF; pH 6.0-7.2; bright light.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, September 2003                                                                                Return to top of page

        Hornwort is another of the "old standbys" of the aquarium world. The plant is found worldwide and comes in several forms. The "tropical" type currently available originally came from India, with another, coarser form native to the Americas.
        This rootless, bushy plant, found in still or slow flowing fresh and brackish water, boasts thick whorls of short, narrow, spiky leaves, fairly sharp to the touch, on long stems with numerous side branches. When grown under strong light in nutrient rich water, it is a profuse spreader, producing long (up to 20" or more) shoots freely and forming thick mats in the water. Although it has no real roots, the plant can anchor itself to the bottom with rhizoids (a rootlike organ) that grow from the leaf bases.
        Hornwort is an excellent spawning plant and provides plenty of cover for fry and shy fish. It does require occasional thinning, and the native American species is prone to dropping its leaves, thus causing a littering problem in aquaria. The tropical variety does not seem prone to this trait.
Preferred Conditions: Hornwort is not fussy about pH or hardness; will grow in temperature of 59-86ºF; pH 6.0-7.5; and prefers moderate to bright light. - G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 2001                                    Return to top of page

        This is one of those robust, undemanding, fast-growing plants that is seemingly indestructible.
        Native to India (hence its second name, above), Hygrophilia is a stemmed plant with decussate, lanceolate leaves that occur along the stalk in alternate pairs, and that vary from bright green to brownish in color, sometimes showing a reddish tinge on the under sides. Leaves are up to 3 inches long, up to 3/4 inch across, and spaced up to an inch apart. Under poor light conditions the leaves are smaller. Stems, which can reach 24" long, grow and branch vigorously, and send out roots from the leaf nodes, as well as rooting readily in the substrate.
         Hygrophilia prefers average temperatures and bright lighting, with a loamy soil, but will grow under most conditions.
        Because of its fast growth and its habit of dropping leaves off the lower stems, it often needs trimming or pruning and replanting. Reproduction is by cuttings, which root readily and can be replanted in clumps, forming a bushy effect.
        Exact classification of this plant is uncertain, since it has never flowered under cultivation.
Preferred Conditions: prefers neutral water; 68-86ºF; pH 6.5-7.8; moderate to bright light (bright for best growth).
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 2003                                                                                        Return to top of page

Java Fern, Sword Fern (Microsorium [Polypodium] pteropus) 
Synonym: Heptochilis decurreus

        Java Fern is a broad leaved, low light level plant from Southern China, India and the Philippines that is familiar to most killifish folks. In the wild, it grows emergent in the spray zone on roots, rocks, and trees or standing in water. During the monsoon season it is completely submerged.
        The leaves are stemmed, lanceolate and dark green, hard but brittle, and wavy. Under the proper conditions, leaves can reach up to 18" long. The color may vary from dark to bright light green, depending on light levels; the more light, the lighter the color.
        Java Fern is a true aquatic fern, reproducing by spores, some of which germinate and become plantlets attached to the parent. Propagation can also be accomplished by division of the thick, rooted rhizome. Although Java Fern can’t be "planted," it can be attached (tied) to solid objects, such as wood or stones. Monofilament fishing line works well for this, or orthodontic rubber bands (if you can get them).
        The plant is easy to grow, is extremely tolerant of a wide range of pH and hardness levels, and is tolerant of moderate amounts of salt. Under conditions to its liking, Java Fern can overtake an aquarium and may require pruning or splitting to keep under control. It is highly susceptible to damage by snails.
Preferred Conditions: tolerates most water conditions, will handle some salt; 68-82ºF; pH 5.5-7.5; low to moderately bright light. -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, October 2001                                                                    Return to top of page

(1) Plants for the Killie Aquarium -- Java Moss

        Although there are many plants suitable for use in the killifish aquarium, one of the most popular is Vesicularia dubyana, or Java Moss. Most killikeepers who have been in the hobby for more than a few weeks have a bunch or more of this hardy, undemanding little moss in their tanks.
        Java moss is a true aquatic moss that grows freely whether it is anchored to a stone, a piece of driftwood, or simply allowed to float. It will grow under extremely limited light conditions that would kill other plants and is tolerant of a wide range of water conditions and temperatures. It can even tolerate some salt.
        Given fairly still water and little disturbance, Java Moss will grow into a lacy, vertical veil; under more usual conditions, it will form a thick matt or dense "forest" of vegetative material ideal for spawning containers, and providing cover for both adults and fry, as well as a site for depositing eggs. It also supports colonies of microorganisms on which the fry feed, while absorbing toxins produced by the growing fish and their wastes.
        To propagate the plant, simply tear or tease the clumps apart and move portions to their new locations.
-- GCKA Newsletter, December 1997                                                                                    Return to top of page

        This unassuming little moss is a standard for killie keepers. Originally from Indonesia and Malaysia, it is a leaf moss, and a member of the family Hypnacae (the mat-forming mosses). Stalks bear a double line of tiny lance shaped, bright green leaves. Java Moss grows freely in jungle-like branched strands that occasionally attach by rhizoids to stones, wood, or soil.
        It’s a versatile, undemanding plant, growing under almost all light conditions. It’s famous for thriving in low light level tanks, but to spur growth, give it a lot of light.
        It will grow attached to a rock or a piece of driftwood, or floating freely. It may be only a few threadlike strands softening a rocky corner, or it may grow into a loose mat that fills a tank. Some use it as a bog plant, and find that it works well as a companion to carnivorous plants.
        Fish love it. It provides great cover and is a terrific spawning medium.
        Because it is also an efficient ammonia soak, it is a good addition to tanks without biofiltration. And, because it also hosts numerous microorganisms, it is a welcome addition to fry tanks. Add a sprig or two to small containers of newly hatched fry to provide an ongoing food source, then add more as the fry grow and are moved to larger quarters.
        It’s readily divided for sharing with other aquarists; just pull it apart with your fingers. Compacted to a dark green mass when removed from the water for tank maintenance or fish catching, it quickly rebounds to its original shape and sends out new strands.
        Altogether a very useful plant, and almost always in demand.
Preferred Conditions: not particular about pH or hardness; 68-86ºF; pH 5.8-7.5; can tolerate some salt, and extremely low light levels, but grows best with moderate or higher lighting. 
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 2001                                                                               Return to top of page

        Java Moss (Vesicularia dubyana) is a plant most killikeepers can’t manage without. It looks good, provides lots of hiding places for eggs and fry, and serves as an efficient ammonia sponge, helping to keep fry tanks clean. It requires very little light or water movement to be happy and grow well, and is even content in fry shoe boxes. Since it’s also a good source of the microorganisms on which tiny fry feed, some aquarists routinely add a piece to every new tank setup.
        Java Moss will often overgrow its allotted space, requiring thinning. Just pull the clumps apart and share with others. The plant that remains will get more light and water circulation, and will quickly regrow. Occasionally you will find a clump that turns brown and/or slimy. With Java Moss, this is no problem, just discard the bad clump and leave the rest alone. It will soon grow back. -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 2005                                                                        Return to top of page

(1) Najas Grass (Najas guadelupensis) (Pond Weed) Synonym: N. microdon

        This family of plants are found in the temperate and tropical zones, in both fresh and brackish water. Najas are submerged plants with dainty, pale green fronds and numerous side shoots from a central stem, forming clusters at the tips of the many fine, branched and often brittle stems. Leaves are narrow, strap-like, and slightly curved, occurring in groups of 3 or more. There are no stems; the stalks gradually transition into the blades. Leaf surfaces are slightly toothed, or prickly.
        Identification of the various species is possible by experts. The most common species is N. guadalupensis, which has leaves 1-1.5 cm long by .1 cm wide. N. indica (synonyn N. kingii) has leaves 2-4 cm long by .1 cm wide.
        Najas guadalupensis is not difficult to grow. It is a free floating plant that may be grown planted or in bunches. It will quickly fill a tank, making it ideal for breeding and fry setups. It does need good light, and seems to do better in harder water with a higher pH. Some aquarists have found that Najas is a heavy feeder that requires the presence of fish (and their wastes) to thrive. In fishless tanks, it often turns pale yellow; apparently needing the additional ammonia and micronutrients provided by the fish to aid its growth.
        It is sometimes susceptible to infestation by hair algae.
Preferred Conditions: Up to 15 dH; tolerant of a wide range of temperatures (68-86ºF); pH 6.0-7.5; prefers bright light; can tolerate brackish water. -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 2001                                                    Return to top of page

(2) Najas Grass (Najas guadelupensis, N. indica)

        Native to the Americas – from the Southern U.S.A. South into South America – this little plant is a pale to bright green, brittle free-floater well-known to aquarists. The slender, fragile stems sport groups of three narrow leaves, the third higher than the other two, positioned on opposite sides of the stem. The slightly arched leaves are up to 3/4" long.
        Clumps may be anchored in the substrate, althoguh they tend to float free. Such "rooted" clumps may form dense bunches with numerous side shoots.
        Grown floating freely, Najas will branch heavily, forming an extensive mat of vegetation.
        Propagation is by cuttings, side-shoots, shoot segments, and division of the mat. A good plant for most peaceful fish; especially good for tanks with fry since it provides plenty of cover.
Preferred Conditions: old, moderately hard water; 72-82ºF; pH 6-7.5; needs plenty of bright light.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, September  2004                                                                                Return to top of page

Plants for Killie Tanks

   As most killiefish hobbyists are aware, killifish like cover in their tanks, places to rest and hide and feel secure. With cover they are less stressed, show their colors better, and are often more likely to spawn.
    What is the best plant cover for killie tanks? The killies don’t seem to care; they aren’t particular whether cover consists of live plants, artificial plants, spawning mops, leaves, or tank debris.
    So the decision is up to the aquarist, but he (or she) has several basic questions to answer before deciding on the best way to furnish his tanks.

        1. What type of tank will it be? Show tank, breeding tank, natural setup, or rearing tank?
        2. Will the tank contain hard water, or soft?
        3. How bright will the lighting be?
        4. Will there be filtration, and what kind?
        5. What are your preferences? Live plants, artificial plants, no plants at all?

    All these variables will have an effect on the plants and fixtures you choose and how they are used.

Show Tank, Breeding Tank, Natural Setup, or Rearing Tank?
        A show tank is designed to "show off" the fish and plants therein, with little or no provision made for the possibility of the fish breeding (although if well fed and content, fish often will breed in such a setup). A show tank usually involves good to bright lighting, use of lots of plants and tank decorations, a group of colorful, active fish, and a good filtration system. Many rooted live plants, such as the swordplants and grasses (Vallisneria and Saggitaria), Anubias and Cryptocorynes, etc., will do very well in such a system, given sufficient nutrients and water and lighting conditions to their liking.
        Breeding tanks and rearing tanks may simply be bare tanks with the inclusion of spawning material (either natural or artificial) and the breeding fish, or they may be "natural" setups with lots of plants for spawning material and cover. Both designs work. Depending on the light levels, many free-floating species of plants, such as Najas grass, Java Moss, Salvinia, water lettuce, etc. are quite suitable for breeding and spawning tanks, and can be easily removed for tank maintenance or to catch fish.

Hardwater or Soft Water?
    Every aquarist has different local water conditions. It's simpler for the aquarist to keep species that can easily adapt to local water conditions than it is to adjust water conditions for a particular species of fish. Plants, too, have water preferences: check their needs before you make your selections. Ask other local aquarists what plants grow well for them. A little pre-planning can help avoid major disappointments later.

Lighting and Filtration
        This is a very important consideration. Some plants, such as the Anubias and Cryptocorenes, and the old standbys Java Fern and Java Moss, do quite well in subdued lighting. Others, like swordplants and the Aponogetums, require bright light and lots of it.
        Keeping the water clear, both for the fishes' health and for viewing, is essential to most aquaria, but some plants have definite preferences regarding water flow or lack thereof. Keep this in mind when selecting the plants you will use.

Real or Artificial Plants?
        This is a matter of personal choice; both have their advantages, and their disadvantages.
        Both provide a wide range of color and texture at (usually) reasonable prices. Both are available through normal aquatic channels.
        Real plants produce oxygen during lighted periods, and feed on waste products in the water, which aid the fish. Given time, they will usually grow and reproduce, and can be shared with fellow aquarists. On the down side, live plants do require maintenance. Some occasional trimming, cleaning, and replanting may be required. Dead leaves must be removed. Some plants will inevitably be chewed on by tank residents. This can be limited or prevented by using care when pairing particular plants with certain species of fish and snails.
        Artificial plants require no trimming or replanting. Fish can’t harm them (although they sometimes may uproot them). Should an outbreak of disease occur they can be easily removed and sterilized. However, they have no beneficial effect on the water. Some plastic plants can be harsh to the touch and can cause damage to fish when they bump against them. They are also prone to colonization by algae, which can be difficult to remove. Plants made of fabric may leach dies and other chemicals into the water.
    So the choice is yours: it’s your tank. If you like the result and the fish do well, that’s all that matters.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 2003                                                                                        Return to top of page

        We all know that to grow, plants need light. Some more, some less. Some seem to be able to hang on even in nearly complete darkness (Java Moss, for instance). But if plants aren’t growing, they aren’t using nutrients, and keeping the water clean.
         The first thing most plants need in order to grow is light. Photosynthesis only begins when light reaches a level that, to the human eye, seems relatively bright, so your plants "may be living in the dark even though it looks somewhat bright to you," says Doug Karpa-Wilson.
         As a rule of thumb, try to have 1.5-3 watts of fluorescent light per gallon of tank. Most hoods have only one bulb. "That’s not enough for most plants. Java moss, fern, and Anubias can hang on, but if you want to see moss covered in new little shoots, give it some light." Incandescent bulbs may provide good light, but they also release more heat than fluorescent, which can add to the temperature in the fishroom, and raise your electric bill.
         Many plants can live on what they get from fish waste, although they may not thrive. Also, like fish, water plants differ in the water conditions they need and prefer. "Anacharis, for example, often does best with cooler water. I can’t grow it to save my life," says Doug. "I do well with ‘expert’ plants like Madagascar Lace, though. Go figure."
         So the old recommendation remains valid: try to select plants for your aquarium that will do well under your local water conditions, temperature, fish attention, and light levels. -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 2004       Return to top of page

Potted Plants? Well, Why Not?

        One problem becomes immediately evident when placing rooted plants directly in the substrate of a killie tank: rearranging or moving plants or catching fish can be a messy affair.
        "Not to mention the difficulty of targeting soil conditions to specific plant species," comments John Hoernig. Unless supplemented, some plants will inevitably receive insufficient or improper nutrition, leading to poor growth. In addition, the light levels required for adequate plant growth are often too bright for killies to feel secure.
        "I put all my rooted plants" in clay pots, says John, then move them around as required. "Potted plants … allow reduced lighting. They are raised up a few inches and are closer to the light bulbs. The closer to the light bulb, the lower wattage needed."
        John grows a majority of his rooted plants under incandescent lighting in fairly shallow tanks. "A single 25 watt soft white incandescent light over 15 gallon tanks 12" deep. For 16" and 20" tanks, I use a 40 watt." Above that depth, he uses fluorescent lighting.
        "Plants under incandescent lighting have larger leaves, grow more slowly, and require less pruning," he observes. The non-flickering nature of incandescents may be more comfortable for the fish, as well. 
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 2001                                                                                    Return to top of page

        The answer used to be a resounding "no." But in recent years suppliers have developed lines of plastic plants that look and feel almost "real." Plastic plants are now attractive and safe for aquaria. They will not affect water parameters. Certainly plastic plants avoid the pro-blems posed by real plants – they don’t die, or develop yellowing leaves, or rotting roots; they don’t shed detritus into the tank.
        They do require occasional cleaning, and algae may be a problem. But should you use them?
        "I have been selling plastic plants both for manufacturers and distributors as well as in aquatic stores for over 20 years," states Bob Wroth. "I have also been breeding fish for about 30 years. I use real as well as plastic plants, and the new silk-like plants for decoration, breeding, and hiding of fish. I have never ... had a problem with plastic plants."
        "Plastic plants are sharp edged and not too good for spawning anything but crevice spawners," contends Wright Huntley. "They support no infusoria, but really encourage nuisance algae.
        "I have had hard-driving male killies injure females by driving them into the stiffer plastic plants," Wright adds. "Many have sharp edges and mold-release spines that can easily injure smaller fish."
        In addition, new plastic plants may give off water-soluble plasticizers. "Have you ever smelled [plastic plants] fresh out of the sales bag? ... I have never trusted the plasticizers used in them to not be unhealthy," he says.
        If used in conjunction with real plants, artificial plants can block the light that is vital to plant respiration and ammonia control.
        In short, use your own judgement. If you like plastic plants, go ahead and use them; if you don’t, stick to the well-proven selection of live plants for your killifish tanks. -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter –April 2001                        Return to top of page

        Originally found in tropical America from Cuba to Paraguay, Salvinia is a member of the floating fern family.
        The plant’s whorls of three circular or elliptical leaves, two that float above the water and one that lies below, with a stalk that lies just below the surface, are distinctive, light green, and up to 1/2 inch long. The leaves have a rough surface of short, stiff bristle-like hairs, giving the plant a silvery appearance. Salvinia has no true root, the root function being undertaken by the floating leaves.
        The plant can reach a total of 9 inches long, but more frequently attains only several inches in length. Salvinia is a plant that requires nutritious water and a good deal of light to flourish. It grows quickly, but with too little light becomes stunted and sickly. Reproduction is by daughter plants, which develop on side branches, then break off to become free floating. Because of its rapid growth pattern, Salvinia can quickly clog the water surface, and often requires thinning.
        On the downside, it dislikes the condensate and heat that build up beneath the aquarium lid, and seems much happier when there is some air circulation above it. The plant is also somewhat messy, tending to drop dead leaves, which necessitates additional tank maintenance.
Preferred Conditions: not too fussy about water; prefers 68-81ºF; pH 6.0-7.0; needs fairly bright light.
– G.C.K.A. Newsletter, November 2000                                                                                Return to top of page

Sterilizing Plants

        Occasionally there comes the time when you may need to sterilize plants.
        You may have had an outbreak of disease in your tanks and don't want to destroy the plants. You may have brought in a new batch of plants and don't want to risk introducing an unwanted pest or pathogen into an established, healthy tank.
        Several products and techniques have proven effective for this task.

Alum. This is an old standby for the aquarist, which you can buy at drug or grocery stores. Use 1 tablespoon of alum per gallon of water. Soak the plants a minimum of 20 minutes, up to a maximum of 2 hours. A two-day soak will kill snails and their eggs. Avoid using this method on extremely fragile plants.

Potassium permanganate. Mix at 10 mg/liter of water for a 10-minute soak, or use "Clear Water" from Jungle Products according to directions. Will kill bacteria and pathogens. Buy potassium permanganate from retail chemical supply stores, or get some from your local school lab.

Bleach solution. Bleach is a universal disinfectant that will kill just about anything, including algae. Use 1 part liquid household bleach (Clorox or equivalent) to 19 parts water. Use only as a last resort with plants. Do not use on soft plants, since it can kill them, and use with caution on others, since it can damage tender plants or new growth. Soak plants 2 minutes for stem plants, 3 minutes for tougher ones. Rinse well afterward with water and dechlorinator.

Quarantine. This simple technique will eliminate parasites like ich and velvet. Simply isolate the plants in a fish-free tank for three weeks. The free swimming parasites must find a host within a limited period of time, or die. By denying them a suitable host, quarantine thus breaks the infection cycle. - G.C.K.A. Newsletter, July 2001                    Return to top of page

        Native to Asia, Australia and Africa, the Aponogetum swordplants encompass a variety of sizes and forms. They are true aquatic plants that have long held a place of honor in aquarists’ hearts because of their beautiful leaves, which are often ruffled or corrugated, sometimes even latticed. Often sold as bulbs or tubers, they are fast growers and usually long lasting. They require mildly acidic, soft water with no calcium and plenty of light.
        Like the Echinodorus swordplants, Aponogetums often drop all their leaves and go through a "resting period", following the drought patterns of their native habitats. When this occurs, they should be removed from the aquarium, the leaves trimmed off, and the tuberous, thick rootstocks stored in plastic bags in the refrigerator for a month or two.
        The most distinctive species available to the hobby is the Madagascar Lace Plant (A. madagascariensis) 8". Unfortunately, this beautiful plant often lives only one season. The Ruffled Asian Swordplant (A. crispus) has bright green leaves up to 18" long. A. ulvaceus is a stout plant that may reach 24" or more, with fine, membraneous, markedly wavy leaves.
Preferred Conditions: mildy acidic, soft water ; temperature 72-82ºF; pH 6.5-7.5; moderate to bright light.
-- GCKA Newsletter, July 2002                                                                                                Return to top of page

(2) Swordplants  (Echinodorus species)

        Like the Aponogetums, these "Amazon Swordplants" are well known amount aquarium hobbyists. Native to Brazil and South America, they are mostly tall (to 24") rooted plants with rosettes of lanceolate leaves that grow from a rhizome. More than one plant may grow from a single rootstock. Young plants often develop on the flower stalk, once it has bent over into the water.
        Not all of the more than 50 Echinodorous species are suitable for aquarium use. They are seldom fussy about water conditions, but all prefer water in the 72-82°F range, pH of 6.5-7.2, and moderate to bright light.
        Most Echinodorous are hardy water and swamp plants with strong roots and a perennial rootstock. During flood season some species develop ribbon-shaped submersed leaves. Like the Aponogetums, they often undergo a "resting period" from December to April.
        Sizes range from E. tenellus (Pygmy Chain Sword), and E. quaadricostatus (Little Amazon Sword) which reach 6", to E. parviflorus (Black Amazon Sword) 12", and E. cordifolius, 20".
Preferred Conditions: neutral water; temperature 72-82°F; pH 6.2-7.2; moderate to intense light.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, February-March 2003                                                                            Return to top of page

        What plants might do well and look good in your tanks? The species listed will adapt to a wide range of temperatures, water chemistry, and lighting. Most are readily available from pet shops and/or other hobbyists.
        1. Nitella flexilis–For those who seem able only to grow algae, this plant is for you. "Spider algae" is an attractive species of algae, similar in appearance to Java Moss. Temperature mid 40s-80s° F, although prolonged high temperatures will kill it. Nitella is good at removing excess nitrogen, and is useful in the breeding tank, providing dense cover.
        Growing Nitella is easy: just drop it into the aquarium. It will even grow in unlit breeding tanks. In planted tanks, it may require occasional trimming or thinning. You may have to ask around to find this plant, but it is worth the effort.
        2. Bolbitis heudelotii–Otherwise known as the Bolbitis fern, African water fern, and Congo fern, this plant grows from a rhizome, like Java Fern. Never bury the rhizome; it will rot. Tie it to rocks or wood, or anchor only the roots in gravel. Bolbitis prefers soft to medium hard water between 72-82° F and neutral pH. Ordinary fluorescent lighting is fine. A slow grower, Bolbitis does best when undisturbed, and prefers some water movement.
        3. Riccia fluitans–Otherwise known as Crystalwort, Riccia tolerates temperatures from 59- 85° F and a pH from 6-8. Primarily grown as a floating plant, Riccia can form dense rafts which provide excellent cover for fry. Pieces may even be incorporated into the bubble-nests of some species. The leaves are short and zig-zag shaped, with a strong yellow-green color. Riccia can be tied down to grow submerged, and can be grown out of water where it produces spores. Most reproduction is vegetative.
        4. Hygrophilia difformis–Also known as Water Wisteria, this rooted stem plant is native to Indo-Malasia, where it grows submerged in rice paddies. It tolerates the ordinary environment of tropical tanks well, but requires more light than many plants. The fern-like leaves are pale green above and whitish below, and appear entirely different when growing above the water. Provide plenty of light and propagate from stem cuttings rooted in fine aquarium gravel.
        5. Aponogeton crispus–Many hybrid plants are sold under this name, or as "wonder bulb." Since they all have the same needs and uses, the exact species may not be critical. The leaves and roots grow from a "hairy" rhizome, or bulb. Leaves are light green with wavy edges; roots are white; the tiny flowers are at the end of a long stalk that usually grows above the water line.
        Look for firm bulbs that are free of black areas. If leaves are present, pick a bulb with fresh new growth. To plant, dig a small pit with your fingers; place the rhizome with the growing tip just above the gravel line and cover the rest. Aponogeton are fast growers, quickly reaching 15-20 inches. After about 5 months, many plants will drop their leaves and go dormant. For the resting period, place the rhizome in a plastic bag and store in a cool dark place for 6-8 weeks.
        6. Anubias barteri–Native to West Africa, Anubias are slow-growing, shade-loving plants. A. barteri has leaves up to 5 in. long, A. barteri nana leaves only reach 2 in. Anubias grow from a rhizome, with roots growing from the bottom. The plant can be attached to a piece of wood or stone, or allowed to float freely on the bottom; do not plant the rhizome or it may die. These are slow growing, long-lived, tough plants that require very little care. Reproduction is vegetative. The rhizome can be cut in half, or small plants detached from it as they appear. Anubias sometimes bloom in the aquarium, with a blossom similar to a Calla lily.
        7. Crinium thaianum–Commonly known as "onion plant," this Thailand native grows from a bulb, producing long strap-shaped leaves similar to Vallisneria gigantea, that may reach 4 ft. or more. Even in large tanks, they often grow horizontally once they reach the surface.
        Look for unblemished white bulbs with bright green leaves. Plant in the back of the aquarium, or in a back corner, leaving half the bulb above the gravel. Under good conditions the plant will grow rapidly; under less than favorable ones, it may not grow at all, but may stay in good shape for a long time. Reproduction is by offset bulblets.
        8. Cryptocoryne wendtii–This Sri Lanka native is one of the most variable Cryptocorynes, being very adaptable and showing many different sizes, colors, and leaf shapes. It looks best when planted in groups of 3-5 plants, and grows well in lower light conditions. It does require stable temperature and water conditions, not dislikes sudden changes.
        Look for plants that are growing upright without twisted stems, and that have at least some white colored roots. Plant in a substrate of fine gravel. In a new aquarium, a substrate additive may be useful. Be sure to dig a hole big enough to accommodate the roots, and keep the crown above the gravel line. Once successfully established, Crypts often produce new plants from runners, which can be dug up and replanted.
        9. Ceratophyllum demersum and C. submersum–Almost everyone knows "Hornwort" which has a world-wide distribution. A typical bunch plant with short rhizoids (false roots) it is suitable for both temperate and tropical aquaria, and is usually sold with 3-5 stems tied together. C. demersum has two-forked leaves that grow in whorls around the stem; C. submersum has leaves with three forks. Both are various shades of green, depending on growing conditions.
        Simply drop it into a tank, or strip the bottom few leaves and insert the ends into the gravel. It will grow quite large, and if left to float, will form dense mats. Look for compact plants with closely spaced leaves and good color. Propagation is by stem cuttings.
        10. Echinodorus species–These swordplants come in a variety of sizes and color variations. Most are bright green, but a few are red or reddish-colored, making a nice contrast in the planted aquarium. Sword plants often grow large, so make good centerpiece plants.
        Look for clean white roots and active leaf growth, with new leaves sprouting from the center. You’ll need a substrate of 3-4 in. to give the plants room enough to grow, and plant so the crown is level with the gravel line. Most swords prefer bright light, but the red ones often manage with less.
Resource: Watts, Bruce. "Ten More Plants for Beginners." The Aquatic Gardener, Aquatic Gardening Association, Vol. 12, No. 6, Nov-Dec. 1999.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, August 2005                     Return to top of page

        "My main problem [in growing plants]," says Monty Lehmann, "is that most of my tanks are set up as breeder tanks, box filters, mops, fish and water. Usually not a light close to the top of the tank.
        "However, I decided to keep some of my fish in planted tanks, but did not want to put in undergravel filters." He began cutting the bottoms from plastic soft drink and water bottles. He punched a few holes near the bottom of each resulting "pot," filled it with gravel, then put in a rooted plant or cutting. The pots were then placed in appropriate tanks.
        "With proper light this method has been wonderful," Monty reports. "I have planted various Vallisneria, Water Wisteria, Water Sprite and others, and they are trying to grow out of the tanks. My only problem is remembering to thin them out.
        "The best part is that I can easily move any of the plants to another tank (but I’m careful to account for any eggs that might be hidden in the plants)." -- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 2002                                            Return to top of page

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)

        This floating tropical member of the pickerel weed family has a mixed reputation. For aquatic gardeners and fish breeders, it can be a very useful and attractive plant, with its waxy, fleshy leaves and sheaf of underwater roots and its attractive stalk of purple/blue flowers. To environmentalists, it is a pest that clogs waterways and crowds out other, more desirable species.
        Water hyacinth grows to about 14" high. It has a mass of fine, dark, hairy, branched roots that provide a good spawning site for fish and cover for fry. The leaves are round, bright green and cordate with spongy distended, oblong or globular shaped stems. The pale lavendar flowers are similar to hyacinths, hence the common name.
        Although Water hyacinth can be grown in the aquarium, the plant is more suited to outdoor or pond use. When grown in the aquarium, it requires rich, warm water and 16" or more of air space above it. It does not tolerate condensation. Propagation is by runners.
Preferred Conditions: not fussy about water; temperature 72-79ºF; pH 6.0-7.8; bright light.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, June 2003                                                                                            Return to top of page

        Beloved of aquarists, the plants in the Water Sprite family are native to the tropics worldwide, bear many names, and come in two basic forms – coarse- and fine-leaved, and two growth styles – floating and rooted.
        Both Ceratopteris cornutas and C. thalictroides are rooted plants with large, finely branched root systems that should be planted with the crown just visible above the substrate surface; C. pteridiodides is a floating form, with short, insubstantial roots.All share bright green, stalked leaves, feathered and deeply cut, that grow from a rosette and unfurl in typical fern fashion.
        Under the right conditions, these plants are prolific, with young plants growing from the leaf margins or from the base of the plant. Young plants of C. cornutas or C. thalictroides may be rooted in the substrate, or allowed to float free. When mature, they may reach 15-20 inches in height and 12 inches in diameter, and may produce aerial leaves. These are more finely divided than emersed leaves. On older specimens, spores may also develop on the leaves.
        The leaves of C. pteridiodides grow on short stems from a cluster of submerged roots, and may reach 6" long by 2" wide. Daughter plants grow in abundance from the leaf margins, and may form dense mats.
        Water Sprite is an excellent plant for spawning tanks, in both its floating and rooted forms, although it is tender and easily damaged by snails or herbivorous fish. It has no equal for clearing green water. Bunches of medium sized plants are good for spawning egg layers, and a few of the floating variety provide a good base for bubble nest builders.
        All varieties require warm, well-fertilized water and plenty of light. If the plant begins to fail, try a major water change, or a new fluorescent bulb.
        Some breeders have observed that if Water Sprite is doing well, so will Epiplatys annulatus and Aphyosemion australe.
Preferred Conditions: moderately soft, slightly acidic water; 68-86ºF; pH 6.5-7.5; 12 hours bright light.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, January 2002                                                                                        Return to top of page

(2) Plants for the Killie Aquarium -- Water Sprite

        There are many plants suitable for use in the killifish aquarium, with selection of a particular plant depending on the water parameters and the fish being maintained.
        One of the more popular species is the waterfern Ceratopteris thalictroides (pteris=wing, thus "serrated wing"), more commonly known as watersprite. Originally from southeast Asia, watersprite has been introduced throughout the tropical zones. In the aquarium, it does best in conditions of aged water, preferably with a relatively high fish population and limited circulation. Some aquarists report success with this plant under conditions that utilize undergravel filtration, coupled with some mulm buildup.
        Watersprite is a warm water plant, preferring temperatures that lie within the 73F-86F range and moderately soft, slightly acidic water with low salt levels and low total dissolved solids. The plant requires bright light and high humidity, and in wild habitats may thrive in full sun and grow in slowly runing water, bogs, and flood areas. It will readily grow as a floating plant on the water surface. It can also be grown rooted in gravel, with even better results attained if the plant is potted and the gravel is mixed with compost.
        Watersprite is available in two forms, coarse- and fine-leaved; and may produce a third, spore-bearing form when the leaves reach above water level. When doing well, watersprite produces buds on the leaf edges, each of which grows into a new plant.
        Watersprite in the floating form provides both surface cover to reduce jumpiness of the fish, and protective cover for fry among the dangling roots and finely divided leaves. This has long made it a favorite of breeders of the livebearing species.
-- GCKA Newsletter, November 1997                                                                                Return to top of page

Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)
        Water lettuce is a floating water plant found in still waters, slow moving rivers, lakes, and marshes in the tropics. The pale blue-green spongy, fluted leaves grow in rosettes, and have a scallop-shell like shape and a velvety texture. The undersides are pale and spongy. The fine, hair-like white roots, which lengthen and darken as they age, hang in a thick cluster beneath the plant. The followers are small and yellowish-white, and lie close to the leaf bases.
        When grown outdoors in bright sunlight, the plant assumes a cupped, upright form that may spread to dinner plate size, especially if excess plantlets are removed. In the aquarium, the shape tends to become more flattened, with the leaves lying close to the water surface. Water lettuce can be overwintered inside, but requires a great deal of bright light. It does tend to be somewhat messy, shedding a great deal, and it will often "dwarf" in an aquarium.
        Reproduction is by runners, with each "mother" plant producing numerous plantlets. Because of its free growth habit, the plant can be an aggressive weed in the wild, but is usually well appreciated in the aquarium, since its roots provide an excellent spawning medium for many fish.
Preferred Conditions: moderately hard water; temperature 72-77ºF; pH 6.5-7.2; bright light.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, March 2002.                                                                                    Return to top of page

Water Wisteria (Hygrophilia difformis) Synonym: Synnema triflorium

            Water wisteria, like many of our more popular aquarium plants, comes from India and western Indochina, growing under a variety of water conditions. A bushy bunch plant, with sufficient light it can grow as tall as the tank it is in. But like its sister plant H. polysperma, H. difformis has a tendency to lose its leaves on the lower stems if it receives insufficient light.
            Leaves are pinnate and opposing, up to 4-3/4 inch long, light green, and somewhat tender, so use caution when selecting fish. The plant is hardly fussy about pH, hardness, or temperature, although the appearance may vary somewhat depending on its water conditions. Leaves are normally decussate and stemmed, with the submerged leaves deeply pinnate. Under cold conditions, the leaves become more lobed. With too little light, they are only slightly pinnated and the internodes are long.
            A cultivated form with white ribs and veins is sometimes available.
            This plant generally requires bright light, a nutrient-rich ground, and in many tanks, regular fertilization with iron-containing fertilizer.
            Reproduction is from cuttings and side-shoot runners. The plant roots easily.
Preferred Conditions: prefers neutral water; 68-86ºF; pH 6.5-7.8; moderate to bright light (bright for best growth).

Resources:  Castro, Alfred D. "Live Plants (2)," Aquarium Fish Magazine, (undated), 16-17.
McInerny, Derek and Geoffrey Gerard. All About Tropical Fish. Facts on File, NY, NY. Rev. 1989.
Van Ramshorst, Dr. J.D., and A. Van Den Nieuwenhuizen. Aquarium Encyclopedia of Tropical Fish.
    HP Books, 1978, pp. 105-106.
-- G.C.K.A. Newsletter, December 2000                                                                                    Return to top of page

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